Background & aimsLutein and zeaxanthin accumulate in retina (macular pigment). Their nutritional status can be assessed using dietary or biochemical markers and both have been associated with macular pigment optical density. We proposed to assess dietary and status markers of lutein and zeaxanthin in a group of healthy Spanish volunteers, considering the potential influence of age, gender and serum lipids to investigate the predictors of the macular pigment optical density.MethodsSerum lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations, dietary intake and macular pigment optical density were determined in 108 healthy men and women (20–35 and 45–65 years), using high-performance liquid chromatography, 3-day food records and heterochromic flicker photometry, respectively. Mann–Whitney U-test, Spearman correlation coefficient and multivariate regression analysis were used for the statistical study.ResultsSerum concentrations and dietary intake of lutein plus zeaxanthin (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.001, respectively) were higher in older vs younger subjects, whereas macular pigment optical density was lower (p = 0.038). The highest correlation coefficients between intake and serum were for fruit and serum lutein (ρ = 0.452, p < 0.0001) and for fruit and lutein + zeaxanthin (ρ = 0.431, p < 0.0001) in the younger group. Macular pigment optical density correlated with serum xanthophylls (ρ = 0.223, p = 0.02) and fruit and vegetable intake (ρ = 0.350, p = 0.0002), showing highest correlations when lutein and zeaxanthin were expressed in relation to serum lipids in older subjects (ρ = 0.262, p = 0.006). Multivariate regression analysis identified age and serum lutein as major predictors of macular pigment optical density (total sample), and a coefficient of determination of 29.7% for the model including lutein + zeaxathin/cholesterol + triglycerides, sex and fruit + vegetables in the older group.ConclusionsThe establishment of normal/reference ranges for serum lutein and zeaxanthin should consider age ranges and be expressed in relation to lipid concentrations, at least in subjects over 45 years, as this could influence macular pigment optical density. The macular pigment optical density showed age-specific correlations with lutein plus zeaxanthin expressed in relation to serum lipid concentrations as well as with the fruit and vegetable intake.

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We assessed the intake and major dietary sources of lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene (non-provitamin A carotenoids) in Spain using food consumption data from the Spanish National Dietary Intake Survey (2009-2010). Three-day diaries and one 24-h recall were used to collect dietary data and a software application that includes HPLC data was used. Average intake of those carotenoids was 4290.8 μg/d (67.1% total carotenoid intake), mainly from vegetables (3414.0 μg/d), followed by fruits (393.5 μg/d), oils/fats (204.0 μg/d) and eggs/egg products (170.0 μg/d). Main sources of lutein and zeaxanthin were vegetables (62.9% total diet, 1235.2 μg/person/d). Lycopene intake was 3055.6 μg/d (71.2% of non-provitamin A carotenoids), mainly from tomato and by-products (86.3%) and watermelon. Red- and orange-colored fruits and vegetables were the major contributors of non-provitamin carotenoids (3219.0 μg/person/d). Balanced diets should favor fruits and vegetables over other dietary sources (oils, eggs, processed foods) that contain components to be consumed with moderation.

Lutein and zeaxanthin (L+Z) accumulate in the retina. Although vegetables are major contributors to their intake, a stronger association between fruit and macular pigment optical density (MPOD) has been reported. We hypothesized that L+Z intake from fruits would have a stronger association with L+Z status markers (MPOD, serum concentrations) than intake from vegetables or eggs and, that those associations would also differ according to plant foods color. 108 subjects (57 men) (20-35, 45-65y) were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. L+Z intake from fruits, vegetables and eggs was determined using three 24h diet recalls and a country-specific carotenoid database. Vegetables were the major contributors (75%) to L+Z intake, followed by eggs (10%) and fruits (4%). Vegetables supplied 86% and 84% of the L+Z intake and fruits 3% and 16%. Green foods supplied 78% and 52% of L+Z respectively, followed by red/orange (9%, 38%) and white/yellow (14%, 9%). Factorial analysis showed associations in older subjects. The explained variance of the first two principal components was 54% considering L+Z intake from fruit, vegetables and eggs, and 55% considering L+Z intake from plant foods grouped by color. MPOD is related to L+Z intake from fruits (0.264, p=0.003) and is independent of that from vegetables and eggs. MPOD is related to L+Z intake from red/orange foods (0.320, p=0.000) and the serum concentrations to that from green foods (0.222, p=0.11). Although vegetables and green foods of plant origin are the major contributors to L+Z intake, red/orange foods and fruits have the strongest relationship to MPOD in study participants (45-65y). Key wordsLutein; zeaxanthin; fruit and vegetables; dietary intake; macular pigment optical density.(e.g. phytosterol or n-3 fatty acid-enriched) and chronic diseases that can affect carotenoid or lipid metabolism. The participants were enrolled over the course of an entire year (during the spring and summer: 40 in the younger and 29 in the older age group; and, during the fall and winter: 14 in the younger and 25 in the older age group).Madrid, Spain (registry no. 257, dated 19 July 2010). Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Dietary intake assessmentRecent dietary intake was evaluated using three 24h diet recalls, one of which coincided with a weekend or holiday, carried out within a period of 7 to 10 days. For the first recall, the participants underwent a face-to-face encounter with a specialized interviewer, normally the same person who, subsequently, performed the other two recalls by telephone. The amounts consumed were estimated in units (for fruits), portions or household servings [3]. On the basis of this information, we calculated food intake in grams/day, which served as the basis for the determination of the daily lutein and zeaxanthin intake using a carotenoid database developed by our group, included in a software application for the calculation of dietary intake of individual carotenoids [18,19]. This carotenoid database contains data on the major dietary ...

β-carotene, α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin are greater contributors to vitamin A intake than retinol in the human diet for most people around the world. Their contribution depends on several factors, including bioavailability and capacity of conversion into retinol. There is an increasing body of research showing that the use of retinol activity equivalents or retinol equivalents could lead to the underestimation of the contribution of β-cryptoxanthin and of α-carotene. The aim is to assess their apparent bioavailability by comparing concentrations in blood to their dietary intakes and identifying the major food contributors to their dietary intake. Dietary intake (3-day 24-h records) and serum concentrations (by HPLC) were calculated in normolipemic subjects with adequate retinol status (≥1.1 µmol/L) from our studies (n = 633) and apparent bioavailability calculated from 22 other studies (n = 29,700). Apparent bioavailability was calculated as the ratio of concentration in the blood to carotenoid intake. Apparent bioavailabilities for α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin were compared to those for β-carotene. Eating comparable amounts of α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene foods resulted in 55% greater α-carotene (95% CI 35, 90) and 686% higher β-cryptoxanthin (95% CI 556, 1016) concentrations than β-carotene in blood. This suggests differences in the apparent bioavailability of α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin and even larger differences with β-cryptoxanthin, greater than that of β-carotene. Four fruits (tomato, orange, tangerine, red pepper) and two vegetables (carrot, spinach) are the main contributors to their dietary intake (>50%) in Europeans.