This article presents a discussion of the principle of extracortical organization of higher mental functions and its significance for the development of contemporary neuropsychology. The role of external factors (stimulus-mediator, symbol) in establishing functional connections between various brain systems is, in principle, universal. However, inasmuch as differing mediators and means, or significantly different details within them (direction of writing, orientation by maps or by the behavior of sea birds, etc.) may and in fact do develop in different cultures, neuropsychological analysis must take into account cross-cultural differences. Diagnostic tools must also be adapted to differing cultural contexts. The efficacy of this principle for the analysis of bilingual aphasia and of mental organization of speech, including the effect of acquisition of literacy in native language, is demonstrated. The importance of this principle for the development of new directions in applied neuropsychology is also discussed.

This article presents an approach to a variety of syndromes and patterns of language disorders in the different languages of bilingual speakers and polyglots. The approach is based on the systemic-dynamic approach of Vygotsky and Luria in which the concept of extracortical organization of mental functions is especially important. This framework demands that in neuropsychological analysis, all the variables and dynamics of the process of bilingual development (language anamnesis) have to be taken into consideration, along with details of the neurological syndrome. Special attention is paid to the circumstances and manner of second language acquisition.

Lev Semionovich Vygotsky created the cultural-historical school of psychology, yet all too few of those writing about his work take into account the family, education, and cultural tradition from which he came. The authors contend that the Jewish nature of these elements was of some importance in forming his personality and his consciousness. The 1st part of the article traces his early upbringing, describes the Jewishness of his environment, notes 3 instances in which his "otherness" was imprinted on his consciousness, and points to the sources of his determination to forge a harmonious synthesis with his environment. The 2nd part examines his writings, both earlier journalistic and mature psychological, and points to evidence of the influence of his Jewish upbringing and environment on his work.

The Israeli educational system faces the specific challenge of teaching Hebrew as a second language to new immigrants from Ethiopia, who are illiterate in their mother tongue. Despite good will and substantial efforts, the success of these immigrants in achieving literacy in the Hebrew language has been limited. To better meet their social and vocational needs, we revised the existing model of literacy teaching for adults and developed an alternative communicative-multicultural-neuropsychological model. This approach is based on cultural-historical approaches developed by Vygotsky and Luria and cultural neuropsychology. The analysis of neuropsychological aspects of illiteracy and changes in brain function related to literacy acquisition allowed us to suggest adding exercises that seek to train phonological awareness and visual perception to processes of learning to read and write. Forty-five students of the experimental (Orit) program had significantly better scores than a group who received an equivalent amount of literacy classes (175 h). This overall effect of the program was reflected by mean improvements in word and sentence production from pictures and letter recognition and increased self-efficacy for language learning. Such a program can be used as a research platform to teach a second language for illiterate adults who lack formal schooling.