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-A hemi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was further developed for the detection of Melissococcus pluton in adult bees and honey bee products. A chloroform:isoamyl alcohol DNA extraction method was used to provide template from 154 samples of adult bee tissues, honey, pollen, whole larvae and comb cells. All 36 honey bee samples tested from a diseased colony were shown to contain M. pluton and sub-clinical infections were detected in adult bee tissues, larvae and honey (49/98; 50.0%) collected from all 9 healthy colonies from areas where EFB was endemic. All 20 adult bee tissue samples from a healthy colony from Western Australia where EFB has never been reported were negative. Of 80 bulk honey samples from six Australian states, 55 of 80 (68.8%) samples were shown to contain M. pluton whereas culture techniques detected M. pluton in 22 of 80 (27.5%) of these samples. M. pluton was detected in honey from all Australian states except Western Australia.polymerase chain reaction / Melissococcus pluton / european foulbrood / honey bees / Australia

-Four replicated experiments were conducted to determine the concentration of oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC) in honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae following application of the antibiotic to honey bee colonies. In the first experiment, the mean OTC concentration was significantly greater in whole larvae than in larval guts sampled from hives on the day immediately following treatment. In two further experiments, 0.3 g, 0.5 g and 1.0 g active OTC in caster sugar was administered to single-and double-storey colonies. The mean OTC concentration was above the minimum inhibitory concentration of OTC to Melissococcus pluton for 2 to 6 days post-treatment, depending upon the dose. The daily rate of change of concentration of OTC in larvae sampled from treated colonies ranged from 0.423 to 0.672. In a fourth experiment, application of 0.3 g and 0.5 g OTC in distilled water gave equal to or higher OTC levels in larvae on the first two days post-treatment when compared to the same doses applied in caster sugar. oxytetracycline hydrochloride / antibiotic / honey bee / European foulbrood / Australia

The propolis industry is well established in European, South American and East Asian countries. Within Australia, this industry is beginning to emerge with a few small-scale producers. To contribute to the development of the Australian propolis industry, the present study aimed to examine the quality and chemical diversity of propolis collected from various regions across Australia. The results of testing 158 samples indicated that Australian propolis had pure resin yielding from 2 to 81% by weight, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content in one gram of dry extract ranging from a few up to 181 mg of gallic acid equivalent and 145 mg of quercetin equivalent, respectively. Some Australian propolis showed more potent antioxidant activity than the well-known Brazilian green, Brazilian red, and Uruguayan and New Zealand poplar-type propolis in an in vitro DPPH assay. In addition, an HPLC–UV analysis resulted in the identification of 16 Australian propolis types which can be considered as high-grade propolis owing to their high total phenolic content. Chemometric analysis of their 1H NMR spectra revealed that propolis originating from the eastern and western coasts of Australia could be significantly discriminated based on their chemical composition.

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