A significant amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is generated during mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Several studies have suggested that mtDNA may accumulate more oxidative DNA damage relative to nuclear DNA. This study used quantitative PCR to examine the formation and repair of hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage in a 16.2-kb mitochondrial fragment and a 17.7-kb fragment f lanking the ␤-globin gene. Simian virus 40-transformed fibroblasts treated with 200 M hydrogen peroxide for 15 or 60 min exhibited 3-fold more damage to the mitochondrial genome compared with the nuclear fragment. Following a 60-min treatment, damage to the nuclear fragment was completely repaired within 1.5 hr, whereas no DNA repair in the mitochondrion was observed. Mitochondrial function, as assayed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide reduction, also showed a sharp decline. These cells displayed arrested-cell growth, large increases in p21 protein levels, and morphological changes consistent with apoptosis. In contrast, when hydrogen peroxide treatments were limited to 15 min, mtDNA damage was repaired with similar kinetics as the nuclear fragment, mitochondrial function was restored, and cells resumed division within 12 hr. These results indicate that mtDNA is a critical cellular target for ROS. A model is presented in which chronic ROS exposure, found in several degenerative diseases associated with aging, leads to decreased mitochondrial function, increased mitochondrial-generated ROS, and persistent mitochondrial DNA damage. Thus persistent mitochondrial DNA damage may serve as a useful biomarker for ROSassociated diseases.

BackgroundHuman pluripotent stem cells have the ability to generate all cell types present in the adult organism, therefore harboring great potential for the in vitro study of differentiation and for the development of cell-based therapies. Nonetheless their use may prove challenging as incomplete differentiation of these cells might lead to tumoregenicity. Interestingly, many cancer types have been reported to display metabolic modifications with features that might be similar to stem cells. Understanding the metabolic properties of human pluripotent stem cells when compared to their differentiated counterparts can thus be of crucial importance. Furthermore recent data has stressed distinct features of different human pluripotent cells lines, namely when comparing embryo-derived human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) reprogrammed from somatic cells.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe compared the energy metabolism of hESCs, IPSCs, and their somatic counterparts. Focusing on mitochondria, we tracked organelle localization and morphology. Furthermore we performed gene expression analysis of several pathways related to the glucose metabolism, including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. In addition we determined oxygen consumption rates (OCR) using a metabolic extracellular flux analyzer, as well as total intracellular ATP levels by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Finally we explored the expression of key proteins involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism.Conclusions/FindingsOur results demonstrate that, although the metabolic signature of IPSCs is not identical to that of hESCs, nonetheless they cluster with hESCs rather than with their somatic counterparts. ATP levels, lactate production and OCR revealed that human pluripotent cells rely mostly on glycolysis to meet their energy demands. Furthermore, our work points to some of the strategies which human pluripotent stem cells may use to maintain high glycolytic rates, such as high levels of hexokinase II and inactive pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH).

Adipose tissue influences tumor development in two major ways. First, obese individuals have a higher risk of developing certain cancers (endometrial, esophageal, and renal cell cancer). However, the risk of developing other cancers (melanoma, rectal, and ovarian) is not altered by body mass. In obesity, hypertrophied adipose tissue depots are characterized by a state of low grade inflammation. In this activated state, adipocytes and inflammatory cells secrete adipokines and cytokines which are known to promote tumor development. In addition, the adipocyte mediated conversion of androgens to estrogen specifically contributes to the development of endometrial cancer, which shows the greatest relative risk (6.3-fold) increase between lean and obese individuals. Second, many tumor types (gastric, breast, colon, renal, and ovarian) grow in the anatomical vicinity of adipose tissue. During their interaction with cancer cells, adipocytes dedifferentiate into pre-adipocytes or are reprogrammed into cancer-associated adipocytes (CAA). CAA secrete adipokines which stimulate the adhesion, migration, and invasion of tumor cells. Cancer cells and CAA also undergo a dynamic exchange of metabolites. Specifically, CAA release fatty acids through lipolysis which are then transferred to cancer cells and used for energy production through β-oxidation. The abundant availability of lipids from adipocytes in the tumor microenvironment supports tumor progression and uncontrolled growth. Given that adipocytes are a major source of adipokines and energy for the cancer cell, understanding the mechanisms of metabolic symbiosis between cancer cells and adipocytes should reveal new therapeutic possibilities.

In this chapter, we describe a gene-specific quantitative PCR (QPCR)-based assay for the measurement of DNA damage, using amplification of long DNA targets. This assay has been used extensively to measure the integrity of both nuclear and mitochondrial genomes exposed to different genotoxins and has proven to be particularly valuable in identifying reactive oxygen species-mediated mitochondrial DNA damage. QPCR can be used to quantify both the formation of DNA damage as well as the kinetics of damage removal. One of the main strengths of the assay is that it permits monitoring the integrity of mtDNA directly from total cellular DNA without the need for isolating mitochondria or a separate step of mitochondrial DNA purification. Here we discuss advantages and limitations of using QPCR to assay DNA damage in mammalian cells. In addition, we give a detailed protocol of the QPCR assay that helps facilitate its successful deployment in any molecular biology laboratory.

Recent data in invertebrates demonstrated that huntingtin (htt) is essential for fast axonal trafficking. Here, we provide direct and functional evidence that htt is involved in fast axonal trafficking in mammals. Moreover, expression of full-length mutant htt (mhtt) impairs vesicular and mitochondrial trafficking in mammalian neurons in vitro and in whole animals in vivo. Particularly, mitochondria become progressively immobilized and stop more frequently in neurons from transgenic animals. These defects occurred early in development prior to the onset of measurable neurological or mitochondrial abnormalities. Consistent with a progressive loss of function, wild-type htt, trafficking motors, and mitochondrial components were selectively sequestered by mhtt in human Huntington's disease-affected brain. Data provide a model for how loss of htt function causes toxicity; mhtt-mediated aggregation sequesters htt and components of trafficking machinery leading to loss of mitochondrial motility and eventual mitochondrial dysfunction.Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion mutation in the coding region of a novel gene. The mechanism of HD is unknown. However, most data suggest that polyglutamine-mediated aggregation contributes to the pathology (32). Studies of human brain (14), mouse models (48), and cells (8, 28) demonstrate that mutant huntingtin (mhtt) binds and sequesters its normal counterpart as well as many cellular proteins (41). But whether pathophysiology results from a loss of normal function or a gain of a new function in adult neurons is not well understood.A major gap in our understanding of the disease mechanism is the absence of a known function for normal huntingtin (htt). Emerging evidence suggests that htt is likely to be a multifunctional protein that can mediate transactions in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Transcriptional dysfunction caused by mhtt has been proposed to lead to toxicity. The mutation in full-length htt prevents its normal ability to bind and sequester a repressor of brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression, reducing the availability of brain-derived neurotrophic factor to striatal neurons (54). The N-terminal, truncated form of mhtt can bind to and interfere with nuclear factors such as CREB (51), CREB binding protein (30, 39), corepressor (22), and transcriptional activator Sp1 (12,23).Cytoplasmic dysfunction has also been implicated as a toxic mechanism. Recently, novel data obtained with Drosophila (17) and isolated squid axoplasm (42) have provided direct evidence that htt is an essential protein involved in fast axonal trafficking. Additionally, these data demonstrate that the mutation in htt causes trafficking abnormalities. Reduction of htt expression in Drosophila caused axonal transport defects in larval nerves and the same neurodegenerative phenotype in adult eyes as expression of mutant dynein or p150 Glued (17). In invertebrate models for HD, expression of truncated proteins with an expanded gluta...