G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) constitute the largest known superfamily for signal transduction and transmission, and they control a variety of physiological and pathological processes. GPCR adaptor b-arrestins (ARRBs) play a role in cancerous proliferation. However, the effect of ARRBs in inflammation-mediated hepatocellular carcinogenesis is unknown. Here we show that ARRB1, but not ARRB2, is upregulated in inflammation-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and paracancerous tissues in humans. A genotoxic carcinogen, diethylnitrosamine (DEN), significantly induces hepatic inflammation, TNF-a production and ARRB1 expression. Although ARRB1 deficiency does not affect hepatic inflammation and TNF-a production, it markedly represses hepatocellular carcinogenesis by suppressing malignant proliferation in DEN-treated mice. Furthermore, TNF-a directly induces hepatic ARRB1 expression and enhances ARRB1 interaction with Akt by binding to boost Akt phosphorylation, resulting in malignant proliferation of liver cells. Our data suggest that ARRB1 enhances hepatocellular carcinogenesis by inflammation-mediated Akt signalling and that ARRB1 may be a potential therapeutic target for HCC.

The transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) mediates inflammation and stress signals in cells. To test NF-κB in the control of hepatic insulin sensitivity, we inactivated NF-κB in the livers of C57BL/6 mice through deletion of the p65 gene, which was achieved by crossing floxed-p65 and Alb-cre mice to generate L-p65-knockout (KO) mice. KO mice did not exhibit any alterations in growth, reproduction, and body weight while on a chow diet. However, the mice on a high-fat diet (HFD) exhibited an improvement in systemic insulin sensitivity. Hepatic insulin sensitivity was enhanced as indicated by increased pyruvate tolerance, Akt phosphorylation, and decreased gene expression in hepatic gluconeogenesis. In the liver, a decrease in intracellular cAMP was observed with decreased CREB phosphorylation. Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase-3B (PDE3B), a cAMP-degrading enzyme, was increased in mRNA and protein as a result of the absence of NF-κB activity. NF-κB was found to inhibit PDE3B transcription through three DNA-binding sites in the gene promoter in response to tumor necrosis factor-α. Body composition, food intake, energy expenditure, and systemic and hepatic inflammation were not significantly altered in KO mice on HFD. These data suggest that NF-κB inhibits hepatic insulin sensitivity by upregulating cAMP through suppression of PDE3B gene transcription.

Insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) is a potential drug target in the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D). IDE controls circulating insulin through a degradation-dependent clearance mechanism in multiple tissues. However, there is not sufficient information about IDE regulation in obesity. In this study, we test obesity-associated factors and pioglitazone in the regulation of IDE in diet-induced obese (DIO) C57BL/6 mice. The enzyme activity and protein level of IDE were increased in the liver of DIO mice. Pioglitazone (10 mg/kg/day) administration for 2 months significantly enhanced the enzyme activity (75%), protein (180%) and mRNA (100%) of IDE in DIO mice. The pioglitazone-induced changes were coupled with 50% reduction in fasting insulin and 20% reduction in fasting blood glucose. The mechanism of IDE regulation in liver was investigated in the mouse hepatoma cell line (Hepa 1c1c7 cells), in which pioglitazone (5 µM) increased IDE protein and mRNA in a time-dependent manner in an 8 h study. Free fatty acid (palmitate 300 µM) induced IDE protein, but reduced the mRNA. Glucagon induced, and TNF-α decreased IDE protein. Insulin did not exhibit any activity in the same condition. In summary, pioglitazone, FFA and glucagon directly increased, but TNF-α decreased the IDE activity in hepatocytes. The results suggest that IDE activity is regulated in liver by multiple factors in obesity and pioglitazone may induce IDE activity in the control of T2D.