This review highlights the latest developments associated with the use of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in ecology. Over the last decade, the NDVI has proven extremely useful in predicting herbivore and non-herbivore distribution, abundance and life history traits in space and time. Due to the continuous nature of NDVI since mid-1981, the relative importance of different temporal and spatial lags on population performance can be assessed, widening our understanding of population dynamics. Previously thought to be most useful in temperate environments, the utility of this satellite-derived index has been demonstrated even in sparsely vegetated areas. Climate models can be used to reconstruct historical patterns in vegetation dynamics in addition to anticipating the effects of future environmental change on biodiversity. NDVI has thus been established as a crucial tool for assessing past and future population and biodiversity consequences of change in climate, vegetation phenology and primary productivity.

High-throughput genotyping technologies developed for model species can potentially increase the resolution of demographic history and ancestry in wild relatives. We use a SNP genotyping microarray developed for the domestic dog to assay variation in over 48K loci in wolf-like species worldwide. Despite the high mobility of these large carnivores, we find distinct hierarchical population units within gray wolves and coyotes that correspond with geographic and ecologic differences among populations. Further, we test controversial theories about the ancestry of the Great Lakes wolf and red wolf using an analysis of haplotype blocks across all 38 canid autosomes. We find that these enigmatic canids are highly admixed varieties derived from gray wolves and coyotes, respectively. This divergent genomic history suggests that they do not have a shared recent ancestry as proposed by previous researchers. Interspecific hybridization, as well as the process of evolutionary divergence, may be responsible for the observed phenotypic distinction of both forms. Such admixture complicates decisions regarding endangered species restoration and protection.

Although facultative scavenging is very common, little is known about the factors governing carrion acquisition by vertebrates. We examined the influence of carcass characteristics, carcass state, and weather conditions on carrion use by main scavengers. Carcasses (N = 214, mainly ungulates) of various origins (predation, natural deaths, harvest) were monitored by systematic inspections (N = 1784) in Białowieża Forest (Poland). Common raven (Corvus corax L., 1758), red fox (Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758)), and European pine marten (Martes martes (L., 1758)) mainly used the prey remains of gray wolves (Canis lupus L., 1758). The kills of predators were the preferred carrion, rather than dead ungulates. Common ravens, common buzzards (Buteo buteo (L., 1758)), white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla (L., 1758)), and domestic dogs scavenged more frequently on carcasses in open habitats. Carcasses located in the forest were the most available to European pine martens, jays (Garrulus glandarius (L., 1758)), and wild boar (Sus scrofa L., 1758). The common tendency was to increase scavenging when temperature decreased, except for raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides (Gray 1834)). As snow depth increased, jays and great tits (Parus major L., 1758) increased scavenging. We suggest that carrion use by scavengers is not random, but a complex process mediated by extrinsic factors and by behavioural adaptations of scavengers.

dynamics in a primeval deciduous forest (Białowieża National Park) in relation to weather, seed crop, and predation. Acta theriol. 38: 199 -232. (Schreber, 1780) and yellow-necked mice Apodemus flavicollis (Melchior, 1834) were studied in 1959 -1991 in the pristine mature forest dominated by hornbeam Carpinus betulus and oak Quercus robur in Białowieża National Park (eastern Poland). The whole 33-year series, and particularly the detailed data from 1971 -1991, were related to weather data and seed crop o f hornbeam, oak, and maple Acer platanoides. Rodent numbers were very low in spring (April), then grew through summer due to repro duction. The annually highest numbers o f both species were recorded in autumn. W inter mortality was on average 77% o f autumn numbers of voles and 86% o f mice. Multiannual variations in numbers were large; the combined numbers of voles and mice showed a regular pattern of 2 years o f outbreak-crash (triggered by heavy mast production) and 4 -7 years of moderate, though variable, densities. Heavy seed crops (synchronous in oak, hornbeam and maple) occurred at 6-9-year intervals (in 1958, 1967, 1976, 1982, and 1989), and were triggered by warm June -July temperature in the preceding year (bud formation year). Outbreaks o f rodents were always preceded by winter breeding in mice and sometimes also in voles. Rodents reached highest numbers in autumn o f the year following the mast peaks. Then, they declined rapidly over winter to extremely low numbers in the following spring, summer and autumn. Such crashes were recorded after 4 out o f 5 outbreaks. In moderate years, summer and autumn numbers o f rodents correlated with food-related factors (seed crop, temperature affecting vegetation biomass), whereas spring numbers were shaped by density dependent winter mortality. Summer (July) numbers of mice in moderate years were a direct function of spring numbers o f overwintered adults ( R = 91%). Autumn (September) numbers o f mice were determined by tree seed crop o f the previous year (R = 32%). Summer numbers of voles depended on temperature in June -July ( R 2 = 29.5%), which most probably acted through an increased production o f herba ceous vegetation biomass. No ambient factors were found to explain variation in autumn numbers o f voles. In both species, the intensity of reproduction in autumn was inversely related to autumn numbers. In bank voles, high temperature in JulySeptember was conducive to prolonged breeding. Winter mortality of rodents was density dependent ( R 2 = 99% in mice and 92% in voles). Mast increased overwinter survival o f mice but not voles. Snow cover increased survival of bank voles. Density -dependent predation was the main agent o f rodent mortality in moderate years, whereas its role in outbreak-crash years has not yet been studied. The described pattern o f population dynamics o f forest rodents is regarded as typical for the decidu ous forests with Quercus in lowland, temperate Europe. Review o f literature showed that the heaviest seed crops of oaks (a...

Although the mechanisms controlling gene flow among populations are particularly important for evolutionary processes, they are still poorly understood, especially in the case of large carnivoran mammals with extensive continuous distributions. We studied the question of factors affecting population genetic structure in the grey wolf, Canis lupus, one of the most mobile terrestrial carnivores. We analysed variability in mitochondrial DNA and 14 microsatellite loci for a sample of 643 individuals from 59 localities representing most of the continuous wolf range in Eastern Europe. We tested an array of geographical, historical and ecological factors to check whether they may explain genetic differentiation among local wolf populations. We showed that wolf populations in Eastern Europe displayed nonrandom spatial genetic structure in the absence of obvious physical barriers to movement. Neither topographic barriers nor past fragmentation could explain spatial genetic structure. However, we found that the genetic differentiation among local populations was correlated with climate, habitat types, and wolf diet composition. This result shows that ecological processes may strongly influence the amount of gene flow among populations. We suggest natal-habitat-biased dispersal as an underlying mechanism linking population ecology with population genetic structure.