Advances in genome technology have facilitated a new understanding of the historical and genetic processes crucial to rapid phenotypic evolution under domestication1,2. To understand the process of dog diversification better, we conducted an extensive genome-wide survey of more than 48,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms in dogs and their wild progenitor, the grey wolf. Here we show that dog breeds share a higher proportion of multi-locus haplotypes unique to grey wolves from the Middle East, indicating that they are a dominant source of genetic diversity for dogs rather than wolves from east Asia, as suggested by mitochondrial DNA sequence data3. Furthermore, we find a surprising correspondence between genetic and phenotypic/functional breed groupings but there are exceptions that suggest phenotypic diversification depended in part on the repeated crossing of individuals with novel phenotypes. Our results show that Middle Eastern wolves were a critical source of genome diversity, although interbreeding with local wolf populations clearly occurred elsewhere in the early history of specific lineages. More recently, the evolution of modern dog breeds seems to have been an iterative process that drew on a limited genetic toolkit to create remarkable phenotypic diversity.

High-throughput genotyping technologies developed for model species can potentially increase the resolution of demographic history and ancestry in wild relatives. We use a SNP genotyping microarray developed for the domestic dog to assay variation in over 48K loci in wolf-like species worldwide. Despite the high mobility of these large carnivores, we find distinct hierarchical population units within gray wolves and coyotes that correspond with geographic and ecologic differences among populations. Further, we test controversial theories about the ancestry of the Great Lakes wolf and red wolf using an analysis of haplotype blocks across all 38 canid autosomes. We find that these enigmatic canids are highly admixed varieties derived from gray wolves and coyotes, respectively. This divergent genomic history suggests that they do not have a shared recent ancestry as proposed by previous researchers. Interspecific hybridization, as well as the process of evolutionary divergence, may be responsible for the observed phenotypic distinction of both forms. Such admixture complicates decisions regarding endangered species restoration and protection.

Although facultative scavenging is very common, little is known about the factors governing carrion acquisition by vertebrates. We examined the influence of carcass characteristics, carcass state, and weather conditions on carrion use by main scavengers. Carcasses (N = 214, mainly ungulates) of various origins (predation, natural deaths, harvest) were monitored by systematic inspections (N = 1784) in Białowieża Forest (Poland). Common raven (Corvus corax L., 1758), red fox (Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758)), and European pine marten (Martes martes (L., 1758)) mainly used the prey remains of gray wolves (Canis lupus L., 1758). The kills of predators were the preferred carrion, rather than dead ungulates. Common ravens, common buzzards (Buteo buteo (L., 1758)), white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla (L., 1758)), and domestic dogs scavenged more frequently on carcasses in open habitats. Carcasses located in the forest were the most available to European pine martens, jays (Garrulus glandarius (L., 1758)), and wild boar (Sus scrofa L., 1758). The common tendency was to increase scavenging when temperature decreased, except for raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides (Gray 1834)). As snow depth increased, jays and great tits (Parus major L., 1758) increased scavenging. We suggest that carrion use by scavengers is not random, but a complex process mediated by extrinsic factors and by behavioural adaptations of scavengers.

dynamics in a primeval deciduous forest (Białowieża National Park) in relation to weather, seed crop, and predation. Acta theriol. 38: 199 -232. (Schreber, 1780) and yellow-necked mice Apodemus flavicollis (Melchior, 1834) were studied in 1959 -1991 in the pristine mature forest dominated by hornbeam Carpinus betulus and oak Quercus robur in Białowieża National Park (eastern Poland). The whole 33-year series, and particularly the detailed data from 1971 -1991, were related to weather data and seed crop o f hornbeam, oak, and maple Acer platanoides. Rodent numbers were very low in spring (April), then grew through summer due to repro duction. The annually highest numbers o f both species were recorded in autumn. W inter mortality was on average 77% o f autumn numbers of voles and 86% o f mice. Multiannual variations in numbers were large; the combined numbers of voles and mice showed a regular pattern of 2 years o f outbreak-crash (triggered by heavy mast production) and 4 -7 years of moderate, though variable, densities. Heavy seed crops (synchronous in oak, hornbeam and maple) occurred at 6-9-year intervals (in 1958, 1967, 1976, 1982, and 1989), and were triggered by warm June -July temperature in the preceding year (bud formation year). Outbreaks o f rodents were always preceded by winter breeding in mice and sometimes also in voles. Rodents reached highest numbers in autumn o f the year following the mast peaks. Then, they declined rapidly over winter to extremely low numbers in the following spring, summer and autumn. Such crashes were recorded after 4 out o f 5 outbreaks. In moderate years, summer and autumn numbers o f rodents correlated with food-related factors (seed crop, temperature affecting vegetation biomass), whereas spring numbers were shaped by density dependent winter mortality. Summer (July) numbers of mice in moderate years were a direct function of spring numbers o f overwintered adults ( R = 91%). Autumn (September) numbers o f mice were determined by tree seed crop o f the previous year (R = 32%). Summer numbers of voles depended on temperature in June -July ( R 2 = 29.5%), which most probably acted through an increased production o f herba ceous vegetation biomass. No ambient factors were found to explain variation in autumn numbers o f voles. In both species, the intensity of reproduction in autumn was inversely related to autumn numbers. In bank voles, high temperature in JulySeptember was conducive to prolonged breeding. Winter mortality of rodents was density dependent ( R 2 = 99% in mice and 92% in voles). Mast increased overwinter survival o f mice but not voles. Snow cover increased survival of bank voles. Density -dependent predation was the main agent o f rodent mortality in moderate years, whereas its role in outbreak-crash years has not yet been studied. The described pattern o f population dynamics o f forest rodents is regarded as typical for the decidu ous forests with Quercus in lowland, temperate Europe. Review o f literature showed that the heaviest seed crops of oaks (a...

Although the mechanisms controlling gene flow among populations are particularly important for evolutionary processes, they are still poorly understood, especially in the case of large carnivoran mammals with extensive continuous distributions. We studied the question of factors affecting population genetic structure in the grey wolf, Canis lupus, one of the most mobile terrestrial carnivores. We analysed variability in mitochondrial DNA and 14 microsatellite loci for a sample of 643 individuals from 59 localities representing most of the continuous wolf range in Eastern Europe. We tested an array of geographical, historical and ecological factors to check whether they may explain genetic differentiation among local wolf populations. We showed that wolf populations in Eastern Europe displayed nonrandom spatial genetic structure in the absence of obvious physical barriers to movement. Neither topographic barriers nor past fragmentation could explain spatial genetic structure. However, we found that the genetic differentiation among local populations was correlated with climate, habitat types, and wolf diet composition. This result shows that ecological processes may strongly influence the amount of gene flow among populations. We suggest natal-habitat-biased dispersal as an underlying mechanism linking population ecology with population genetic structure.