Cutaneous leishmaniasis is endemic in the tropics and neotropics. It is often referred to as a group of diseases because of the varied spectrum of clinical manifestations, which range from small cutaneous nodules to gross mucosal tissue destruction. Cutaneous leishmaniasis can be caused by several Leishmania spp and is transmitted to human beings and animals by sandflies. Despite its increasing worldwide incidence, but because it is rarely fatal, cutaneous leishmaniasis has become one of the so-called neglected diseases, with little interest by financial donors, public-health authorities, and professionals to implement activities to research, prevent, or control the disease. In endemic countries, diagnosis is often made clinically and, if possible, by microscopic examination of lesion biopsy smears to visually confirm leishmania parasites as the cause. The use of more sophisticated diagnostic techniques that allow for species identification is usually restricted to research or clinical settings in non-endemic countries. The mainstays of cutaneous leishmaniasis treatment are pentavalent antimonials, with new oral and topical treatment alternatives only becoming available within the past few years; a vaccine currently does not exist. Disease prevention and control are difficult because of the complexity of cutaneous leishmaniasis epizoology, and the few options available for effective vector control.

Abstract. Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) transmit many zoonotic diseases (arboviruses, bartonelloses and especially leishmaniases) of importance to human health in at least 80 countries. Measures used to control adult sandflies (Lutzomyia and Phlebotomus) include the use of insecticides (mostly pyrethroids) for residual spraying of dwellings and animal shelters, space-spraying, insecticidetreated nets, impregnated dog-collars and personal protection through application of repellents/insecticides to skin or fabrics. Because the breeding-sites of sandflies are generally unknown, control measures that act specifically against immatures are not feasible, although the effectiveness of a few biological and chemical agents has been demonstrated in laboratory evaluations. Reports of insecticide-resistance refer to only three sandfly species (P. papatasi, P. argentipes and S. shorttii) against DDT in one country (India), although there are reports of DDT-tolerance in several countries. Current knowledge of sandfly susceptibility to various insecticides is summarized. Constraints and advantages of different compounds, formulations and delivery methods for sandfly control under different environmental conditions are discussed.

Abstract. A review is presented of methods for sampling phlebotomine sand¯ies (Diptera: Psychodidae). Among~500 species of Phlebotominae so far described, mostly in the New World genus Lutzomyia and the Old World genus Phlebotomus, about 10% are known vectors of Leishmania parasites or other pathogens. Despite being small and fragile, sand¯ies have a wide geographical range with species occupying a considerable diversity of ecotopes and habitats, from deserts to humid forests, so that suitable methods for collecting them are in¯uenced by environmental conditions where they are sought. Because immature phlebotomines occupy obscure terrestrial habitats, it is dif®cult to ®nd their breeding sites. Therefore, most trapping methods and sampling procedures focus on sand¯y adults, whether resting or active. The diurnal resting sites of adult sand¯ies include tree holes, buttress roots, rock crevices, houses, animal shelters and burrows, from which they may be aspirated directly or trapped after being disturbed. Sand¯ies can be collected during their periods of activity by interception traps, or by using attractants such as bait animals, CO 2 or light. The method of trapping used should: (a) be suited to the habitat and area to be surveyed, (b) take into account the segment of the sand¯y population to be sampled (species, sex and reproduction condition) and (c) yield specimens of appropriate condition for the study objectives (e.g. identi®cation of species present, population genetics or vector implication). Methods for preservation and transportation of sand¯ies to the laboratory also depend on the objectives of a particular study and are described accordingly.

Zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL) is a serious public health problem in several Brazilian cities. Although the proximity of chicken houses is often cited as a risk factor in studies of urban ZVL, the role chickens play in the epidemiology of the disease has not been defined. Chickens attract both male and female sand flies (Lutzomyia longipalpis), but are unable to sustain Leishmania infections, and their presence may exert a zooprophylactic effect. We discuss environmental, physiologic, socioeconomic, and cultural factors related to chicken raising that could influence Le. infantum transmission in Brazilian cities and evaluate whether this practice significantly affects the risk of acquiring ZVL.

No abstract