Abstract-The use of toxicity tests in which each chemical is tested separately is inadequate for assessing the potential risk of complex mixtures of chemicals for soil ecosystems. In the present study, the effects of Cd and Zn, alone or in combination, on the survival, growth, and reproduction of the collembolan Folsomia candida were determined after 2, 4, and 6 weeks of exposure in an artificial soil. The water solubility of Cd in the soil was significantly increased by the presence of Zn, whereas Cd did not affect the water solubility of Zn. In spite of this, uptake of Cd or Zn in the animals was not affected by the presence of the other metal, suggesting that water solubility does not determine the uptake of these metals in F. candida. For both Cd and Zn, reproduction was the most sensitive parameter, with 50% effective concentration (EC50) values of 51 and 683 g/g dry soil, respectively, after 6 weeks. These values corresponded with internal concentrations of 44 g Cd/g and 97 g Zn/g dry body weight, respectively, while corresponding water-soluble EC50s were 0.13 g Cd/g and 14 g Zn/g dry soil, respectively. Although a proper comparison of the effects of mixtures of the metals with the effects of the individual metals was sometimes hampered by the nonsimilarity of dose-response relationships, it may be concluded that the effects of the mixture of Cd and Zn on the growth of F. candida are antagonistic (EC50 significantly greater than 1.0 toxic unit), while the effects on reproduction are additive (EC50 ϭ 1.0 toxic unit). Similar conclusions could be drawn for EC50s expressed on the basis of total and water-soluble soil concentrations as well as on the basis of internal concentrations in the animals. Analysis of the combined effects of Cd and Zn at the 10% effective concentration level did not change these conclusions.

Environmental risk assessment of chemicals is mostly based on the results of standardized toxicity tests. To obtain environmental quality criteria, extrapolation factors are used that depend on the amount and quality of available data. These extrapolation factors do not, however, take into account the mode of action of the compound tested or the life history of the test organism. In this study, we analyzed the variability in acute‐to‐chronic ratios (ACRs) for various chemicals in relation to their mode of action. Chemicals were classified as nonpolar narcotics, polar narcotics, specifically acting compounds, and heavy metals. As an acute endpoint, the LC50 was used; as a chronic endpoint, the lowest test concentration at which the natural rate of population increase (r) is affected, or LOEC(r), was used. Data were derived from the on‐line literature. Nonpolar narcotic chemicals demonstrate the smallest variation in ACRs, and acute tests can be used to derive chronic endpoints for this class. For the other classes, the variation in ACRs is larger. Fish species especially show a relatively large ACR. For heavy metals, differences in the mode of action may play an important role in explaining differences in ACRs. For the other three classes, however, it is less reliable to predict chronic toxicity using the results of acute tests. In general, differences in species sensitivity rather than in mode of action for the chemical seem to determine differences in ACRs.

The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals have been established to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. Delivery of the Sustainable Development Goals will require a healthy and productive environment. An understanding of the impacts of chemicals which can negatively impact environmental health is therefore essential to the delivery of the Sustainable Development Goals. However, current research on and regulation of chemicals in the environment tend to take a simplistic view and do not account for the complexity of the real world, which inhibits the way we manage chemicals. There is therefore an urgent need for a step change in the way we study and communicate the impacts and control of chemicals in the natural environment. To do this requires the major research questions to be identified so that resources are focused on questions that really matter. We present the findings of a horizon-scanning exercise to identify research priorities of the European environmental science community around chemicals in the environment. Using the key questions approach, we identified 22 questions of priority. These questions covered overarching questions about which chemicals we should be most concerned about and where, impacts of global megatrends, protection goals, and sustainability of chemicals; the development and parameterization of assessment and management frameworks; and mechanisms to maximize the impact of the research. The research questions identified provide a first-step in the path forward for the research, regulatory, and business communities to better assess and manage chemicals in the natural environment.

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Abstract-Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a common component of soil pollution, yet little is known of the ecotoxicological risks these compounds may pose to life in soil. This article reports the ecotoxicity of five PAHs for two terrestrial isopod species. Isopods were exposed to food contaminated with four different concentrations of either fluorene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene (up to 4 mol/g), benz [a]anthracene, or benzo[a]pyrene (up to 1.25 mol/g). Exposure of Porcellio scaber lasted 16 weeks, and no adverse effects on survival, growth, or total protein (only females tested) were observed in any of the treatments. A small but significant reduction in growth of Oniscus asellus was observed at 47 weeks of exposure to 0.125 mol benz[a]anthracene·g Ϫ1 dry weight and 1.25 mol fluorene·g Ϫ1 dry weight and higher concentrations. A significant stimulation of the reproduction of O. asellus was observed in some of the phenanthrene, fluoranthene, benz[a]anthracene, and benzo[a]pyrene treatments; a larger proportion of the females were gravid, which resulted in a higher number of juveniles per female. Exposure did not significantly affect brood size, weight of the mother after release of the juveniles, or the survival of the juveniles upon starvation. Total protein content of females was significantly reduced at 0.4 mol fluorene g Ϫ1 dry weight and higher concentrations. Growth and protein content of isopods is likely to be affected by PAH exposure only at highly contaminated sites. The ecological consequences of stimulated reproduction and possible DNA damage are poorly understood and require further attention because soil invertebrates may be exposed to PAHs over many generations.