BackgroundThe mechanisms of toxicity of metal oxide particles towards lung cells are far from being understood. In particular, the relative contribution of intracellular particulate versus solubilized fractions is rarely considered as it is very challenging to assess, especially for low-solubility particles such as cobalt oxide (Co3O4).MethodsThis study was possible owing to two highly sensitive, independent, analytical techniques, based on single-cell analysis, using ion beam microanalysis, and on bulk analysis of cell lysates, using mass spectrometry.ResultsOur study shows that cobalt oxide particles, of very low solubility in the culture medium, are readily incorporated by BEAS-2B human lung cells through endocytosis via the clathrin-dependent pathway. They are partially solubilized at low pH within lysosomes, leading to cobalt ions release. Solubilized cobalt was detected within the cytoplasm and the nucleus. As expected from these low-solubility particles, the intracellular solubilized cobalt content is small compared with the intracellular particulate cobalt content, in the parts-per-thousand range or below. However, we were able to demonstrate that this minute fraction of intracellular solubilized cobalt is responsible for the overall toxicity.ConclusionsCobalt oxide particles are readily internalized by pulmonary cells via the endo-lysosomal pathway and can lead, through a Trojan-horse mechanism, to intracellular release of toxic metal ions over long periods of time, involving specific toxicity.

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BackgroundPoorly soluble cobalt (II, III) oxide particles (Co3O4P) are believed to induce in vitro cytotoxic effects via a Trojan-horse mechanism. Once internalized into lysosomal and acidic intracellular compartments, Co3O4P slowly release a low amount of cobalt ions (Co2+) that impair the viability of in vitro cultures.In this study, we focused on the genotoxic potential of Co3O4P by performing a comprehensive investigation of the DNA damage exerted in BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells.ResultsOur results demonstrate that poorly soluble Co3O4P enhanced the formation of micronuclei in binucleated cells. Moreover, by comet assay we showed that Co3O4P induced primary and oxidative DNA damage, and by scoring the formation of γ-H2Ax foci, we demonstrated that Co3O4P also generated double DNA strand breaks.ConclusionsBy comparing the effects exerted by poorly soluble Co3O4P with those obtained in the presence of soluble cobalt chloride (CoCl2), we demonstrated that the genotoxic effects of Co3O4P are not simply due to the released Co2+ but are induced by the particles themselves, as genotoxicity is observed at very low Co3O4P concentrations.