Populations are locally adapted when they exhibit higher fitness than foreign populations in their native habitat. Maize landrace adaptations to highland and lowland conditions are of interest to researchers and breeders. To determine the prevalence and strength of local adaptation in maize landraces, we performed a reciprocal trans-13 C = 13 C Sample : 12 C Sample 12 C Standard : 12 C Standard − 1 * 1000.

Populations are locally adapted when they exhibit higher fitness than foreign populations in their native habitat. Maize landrace adaptations to highland and lowland conditions are of interest to researchers and breeders. To determine the prevalence and strength of local adaptation in maize landraces, we performed a reciprocal transplant experiment across an elevational gradient in Mexico. We grew 120 landraces, grouped into four populations (Mexican Highland, Mexican Lowland, South American Highland, South American Lowland), in Mexican highland and lowland common gardens and collected phenotypes relevant to fitness, as well as reported highland-adaptive traits such as anthocyanin pigmentation and macrohair density. 67k DArTseq markers were generated from field specimens to allow comparison between phenotypic patterns and population genetic structure. We found phenotypic patterns consistent with local adaptation, though these patterns differ between the Mexican and South American populations. While population genetic structure largely recapitulates drift during post-domestication dispersal, landrace phenotypes reflect adaptations to native elevation. Quantitative trait QST was greater than neutral FST for many traits, signaling divergent directional selection between pairs of populations. All populations exhibited higher fitness metric values when grown at their native elevation, and Mexican landraces had higher fitness than South American landraces when grown in our Mexican sites. Highland populations expressed generally higher anthocyanin pigmentation than lowland populations, and more so in the highland site than in the lowland site. Macrohair density was largely non-plastic, and Mexican landraces and highland landraces were generally more pilose. Analysis of δ13C indicated that lowland populations may have lower WUE. Each population demonstrated garden-specific correlations between highland trait expression and fitness, with stronger positive correlations in the highland site. These results give substance to the long-held presumption of local adaptation of New World maize landraces to elevation and other environmental variables across North and South America.