The extent to which individual differences in cognitive abilities affect the relationship among task complexity, attention to form, and second language development has been addressed only minimally in the cognition hypothesis literature. The present study explores how reasoning demands in tasks and working memory (WM) capacity predict learners' ability to notice English question structures provided in the form of recasts and how this contributes to subsequent development of English question formation. Eighty-one nonnative speakers of English completed three interactive tasks with a native speaker interlocutor, one WM task, and three oral production tests. Prior to the fi rst interactive task, participants were randomly assigned to a task group (simple or complex). During task performance, all learners were provided with recasts targeting errors in question formation. The results showed that learners' cognitive processes during tasks were in line with the cognitive demands of the tasks, at two complexity levels. The fi ndings suggest that WM was the only signifi cant predictor of the amount of noticing of recasts as well as of learners' question development. With regard to interaction effects between WM and task complexity, high WM learners who carried out a complex version of the tasks benefi tted the most from task-based interaction.Since Long's ( 1996 ) updated interaction hypothesis, there has been a surge in research conducted on the effects of conversational interaction on second language (L2) learning, to the degree that "a robust connection" between interaction and learning is now commonly accepted (Gass & Mackey, 2007 , p. 176; see also Mackey, Abbuhl, & Gass, 2012 , for a review). Learner internal and external factors mediating the positive relationship between interaction and L2 learning have been identifi ed, and the role of task design features in both L2 performance and interactiondriven language learning is being increasingly examined in the fi eld of instructed SLA. Researchers have explored the effects of task complexity on L2 development by testing the predictions of Robinson's ( 2011 ) cognition hypothesis and Skehan's ( 1998 ) trade-off hypothesis. However, very little research has looked into the ways individual learners' cognitive characteristics, such as working memory (WM) capacity, mediate the effects of task complexity on L2 learning. Moreover, from a methodological standpoint, researchers have yet to systematically document evidence of task complexity validation (e.g., Baralt, 2013 ;Gilabert & Barón, 2013 ;Norris, 2010 ;Révész, 2014 ). To address these issues and to test the predictions of the cognition hypothesis, the current study (a) assesses whether task complexity manipulations are in line with learner perceptions and cognitive processes during task completion; (b) examines the relationship between task complexity, WM, and noticing of recasts; and (c) investigates the development of English language questions by L2 learners. BACKGROUND

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The global Covid-19 pandemic that hit educational contexts worldwide transformed our regular educational practices and some tasks such as peer revision, a staple in many additional language (AL) writing courses (Hyland & Hyland, 2019), were put aside. As teachers have become more familiar with many new technologies since the start of the pandemic, there is a need to implement peer revision tasks and to understand learners' experiences in this process. The aims of the present study were to examine AL learners’ subjective experience through flow theory as they engage in peer revision tasks with two components: an individual peer feedback component with a follow-up shared feedback component. Flow, a positive experiential state characterized by focus and involvement in challenging yet doable tasks, has been associated with enhanced self-confidence and task performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Participants of French as an AL (n = 18) engaged in two peer revision tasks (PR) which included both an individual (I-PR) and a follow-up sharing component (S-PR). Flow perception questionnaires were completed immediately following each task. Findings provide empirical evidence that despite being physically isolated and having limited experience with online technologies, learners experienced flow, especially during the S-PR but that technology familiarity and familiarity with peer revision procedures as a result of repeating the procedure mediated flow experiences.

A growing body of research has shown a positive role of task-supported instruction in second language (L2) learning (Ellis, 2003a; Loewen, 2015; Van Den Branden, 2006). From a pedagogical perspective, recycling or repeating parts of teaching materials is common practice and theoretical support for such practice is emerging (Bygate and Samuda, 2005). However, determining which aspects to repeat during task-supported interaction that fosters interaction-driven learning opportunities while maintaining student interest is currently underexplored. Further, few studies have considered learners’ perception during task completion. The current study thus examined the effects of task repetition on the production and resolution of language-related episodes (LREs) over time. English-speaking (first language, L1) students of Spanish (second language, L2) from two intact Spanish as a foreign language (FL) classroom ( n = 28) were assigned to one of the following task repetition groups: task with repetition (same task/same content) or task with procedural repetition (same task/new content). Learner–learner interaction produced during two-way decision-making tasks were transcribed and coded for LREs. Learner perception data was collected following task completion and analysed qualitatively. The results indicated that the task repetition had greater benefits on the occurrence and resolution of lexis-based LREs, but that both groups benefited similarly in terms of producing and resolving form-based LREs. Results are discussed in light of speech processing models and pedagogical implications for task-based instruction in FL settings are examined.