We examined how glucocorticoid and testosterone concentrations changed from spring to summer by livetrapping free-living populations of arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii). The primary glucocorticoid was found to be cortisol, with corticosterone below measurable concentrations in most individuals. Livetrapping elicited a strong stress response in both sexes: breeding males and females trapped in spring had free cortisol concentrations 4 and 34 times, respectively, those of base-line animals. The maximum corticosteroid-binding capacity (MCBC) was unaffected by trapping and was about 3 times higher in breeding females than in breeding males. Over the active season, MCBC values were lowest in all male classes (juveniles, nonreproductive adults, and reproductive adults), being less than half those in all female classes; pregnant females had values approximately twice those of juvenile females. However, free cortisol concentrations were similar in all female classes and in juvenile males and about half those in adult males. Livetrapping increased testosterone concentrations in males over those found in samples from base-line males, and testosterone concentrations did not affect MCBC values. Testosterone concentrations in livetrapped animals differed significantly among male classes, with nonreproductive males maintaining concentrations 64% of those in breeding males and 10 times those in juveniles.Résumé : Nous avons examiné les variations des concentrations de glucocorticoïdes et de testostérone du printemps à l'été par piégeage d'animaux vivants dans des populations de Spermophiles arctiques (Spermophilus parryii) en nature. Le principal glucocorticoïde est le cortisol; la corticostérone est présente en quantité trop faible pour être décelée chez la plupart des individus. Le piégeage déclenche une forte réaction de stress chez les deux sexes; chez les individus reproducteurs, mâles et femelles, au printemps les animaux piégés avaient des concentrations de cortisol 4 et 34 fois plus élevées respectivement que les valeurs de base. La capacité maximale de liaison des corticostéroïdes (MCBC) n'a pas été affectée par le piégeage et était environ 3 fois plus élevée chez les femelles reproductrices que chez les mâles.

We tested the hypothesis that adult male arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii plesius) exhibit an adaptive stress response during the mating period that may compromise their survival, whereas males at other times (nonreproductive adult males and juvenile males) have a normal functional stress response. We assessed the physiological responsiveness of the stress axis, of energy mobilization, and of the immune response by subjecting adult breeding males, adult nonbreeding males, and juvenile males to a hormonal challenge and an immunocompetence challenge. At the onset of the breeding season in spring, only 25–30% of the population were males, and of those present during the mating period, half disappeared soon thereafter, and 82% were not replaced by immigrants. Adult breeding males had the highest levels of free cortisol, the lowest maximum corticosteroid‐binding capacity, slight dexamethasone resistance, the lowest hematocrit, the lowest number of white blood cells, the highest number of eosinophils, and the poorest ability to respond to the foreign antigen challenge in comparison with the other two male classes. All of these characteristics were indicative of chronic stress in breeding males that may directly compromise their survival. Juvenile males in mid‐August also showed many, but not all of these characteristics, indicative of a prolonged period of stress, presumably associated with the period of dispersal. Testosterone levels remained high irrespective of age or breeding condition, decreased when dexamethasone was injected, and increased when ACTH was injected. These latter results are unique in mammals. High testosterone levels and their augmentation with stressors may play a key role in maintenance of aggressive behavior. We conclude that breeding male arctic ground squirrels exhibit an adaptive stress response in which they trade off survival for reproduction. We hypothesize that similar stress responses may have evolved in other species with comparable life histories.

Arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii plesius Richardson) in the southeastern Yukon live in both boreal forest and alpine tundra habitats. We live-trapped young male and female squirrels in both habitat types and subjected them to a standardized hormonal-challenge protocol to assess the responsiveness of their hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Alpine squirrels had levels of free cortisol at the baseline (initial) bleed following their removal from traps that were 3 times higher in males and 5 times higher in females compared with boreal forest squirrels. Females, but not males, from the boreal forest were dexamethasone resistant, while neither sex from the alpine habitat was resistant. Free cortisol in alpine squirrels also responded more dramatically after the injection of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Corticosteroid-binding globulin levels were significantly lower in forest than alpine squirrels and these levels were not markedly affected by the challenge protocol. Glucose levels were significantly higher in boreal than alpine squirrels and the pattern differed between the two sites in response to the protocol. Hematocrits were significantly higher in alpine squirrels. Collectively, this evidence suggests that Arctic ground squirrels were more chronically stressed in the boreal forest than in the alpine meadows. The most likely explanation for our results is higher predation risk in the forest compared with alpine meadows, as forage availability and population density were not significantly different between the two habitats.

Abstract. We tested the hypothesis that adult male arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii plesius) exhibit an adaptive stress response during the mating period that may compromise their survival, whereas males at other times (nonreproductive adult males and juvenile males) have a normal functional stress response. We assessed the physiological responsiveness of the stress axis, of energy mobilization, and of the immune response by subjecting adult breeding males, adult nonbreeding males, and juvenile males to a hormonal challenge and an immunocompetence challenge. At the onset of the breeding season in spring, only 25-30% of the population were males, and of those present during the mating period, half disappeared soon thereafter, and 82% were not replaced by immigrants. Adult breeding males had the highest levels of free cortisol, the lowest maximum corticosteroidbinding capacity, slight dexamethasone resistance, the lowest hematocrit, the lowest number of white blood cells, the highest number of eosinophils, and the poorest ability to respond to the foreign antigen challenge in comparison with the other two male classes. All of these characteristics were indicative of chronic stress in breeding males that may directly compromise their survival. Juvenile males in mid-August also showed many, but not all of these characteristics, indicative of a prolonged period of stress, presumably associated with the period of dispersal. Testosterone levels remained high irrespective of age or breeding condition, decreased when dexamethasone was injected, and increased when ACTH was injected. These latter results are unique in mammals. High testosterone levels and their augmentation with stressors may play a key role in maintenance of aggressive behavior. We conclude that breeding male arctic ground squirrels exhibit an adaptive stress response in which they trade off survival for reproduction. We hypothesize that similar stress responses may have evolved in other species with comparable life histories.