Previous studies measured flow states using students’ self-reported experiences, resulting in issues regarding nonobjective and nonreal-time data. Thus, this study used an electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure the EEG-detected real-time flow states (EEG-Fs) of 30 students from the 4th and 5th grades. Their EEG measurements, self-reported reflective flow experiences (SR-Fs), grade levels (GLs), balance of challenge and skill (BCS), and sense of control, represented by their overall test performance (OA-tp) and momentary test performance (MOM-tp), were analyzed to establish their EEG-F’s construct. Based on the results of a chi-square test, the EEG-F correlates significantly with SR-F, BCS, OA-tp, and MOM-tp. A J48 decision tree analysis and logistic regression further revealed that in-flow experiences (in-EEG-F) were detected when students had high SR-Fs, where the BCS contributed to flow states. In particular, students with a low-challenge/high-skill BCS demonstrated an in-EEG-F state upon having a high OA-tp. For high-challenge/high-skill, the in-EEG-F state was determined through their MOM-tp. Through the EEG and flow state construct, this study revealed a whole-part association between students’ momentary and overall reflective flow experiences and identified viable paths for inducing students’ EEG-Fs, which can contribute to future e-learning development when integrated with a brain-computer interface for e-learning or e-evaluation systems.

As game-based learning continues to draw attention, students’ perceptions toward classroom activities are vital in influencing the quality of learning. This study used the social cognitive theory to show the perception traits of learning and playing in game-based environments and for students to identify their self-efficacy toward game-based learning by different trait groups. The game Formosa Hope was used in an experiment with 362 fifth- and sixth-grade students at ages 11 to 12 years as participants. Three perception traits were identified through a two-step cluster analysis: I—strong perceptions of learning and playing, II—moderate perceptions of learning and playing, and III—strong perception of playing but weak perception of learning. This study showed that regardless of trait type, students demonstrated positive self-efficacy, with those with Trait I having significantly higher self-efficacy than those with Traits II and III, indicating that students’ positive perceptions of learning and playing are essential in prompting self-efficacy in game-based learning.

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Studies have shown that although traditional instruction is effective in developing students' conceptual understanding, it lacks in strengthening their thinking skills. To enhance traditional instruction and establish an approach using game-based instruction, this study developed Multi-genre digital Gamebased Instruction (MGI), which integrates various game genres-situated and competitive-with traditional instruction. A total of 115 fourth-graders (9-10 years old) of 4 classes participated in the study, of which 2 classes made up the MGI (experimental) group and the other 2, the traditional instruction (control) group. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to answer research questions by examining the comparative effectiveness of the two groups separately as well as the effectiveness by achievement level, and exploring students' learning experiences. Findings showed that using MGI resulted in a significant improvement in conceptual understanding and argumentation skills compared to those who were taught only with traditional instruction. Furthermore, it showed that MGI was significantly more effective than traditional instruction in improving low-achieving students' conceptual understanding, as well as improving argumentation skills for all achievement levels. Students' learning experiences with MGI showed how the proposed instruction is superior compared to existing traditional instruction.

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