Cultural differences in self-construal, human relationships, and values between Western and East Asian people have been suggested. The aim of this article is to investigate cultural difference in dreamers’ self-construal based on their dreams. We examined the dreams sampled via online questionnaires from 300 non-clinical participants from America and Japan, respectively. The free response for the contents of “impressive dreams in childhood” “recent impressive dreams” was categorized into the five general dream structural patterns. Besides, the participants were asked to answer the scales to investigate participants’ cultural self-construal. The current results revealed the prevalence of the independent view of self in American participants and the interdependent view of self in Japanese participants. In addition, we found significant cultural differences in the dream length and structural patterns. For American dreams, the dream-ego had a clear will and strong mobility, and there were obvious ends of dream events. Conversely, for Japanese dreams, the weak agency and vague conscious of the dream-ego were shown, and others could play a main role in one’s dreams. These results suggested that each characteristic of the American and Japanese samples may be influenced by the differences in self-construal or in the process of self-formation between American and Japanese cultures.

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This study examined whether counsellors' memory of client-presented information varies qualitatively according to the number of years of counselling experience. This study developed a methodology to measure the amount of counsellors' recall memory obtained from a free recall task after watching videotaped stimulus interviews. Four experienced counsellors, seven novice counsellors, and 12 noncounsellors watched videotaped stimulus interviews and then wrote freely everything they could recall about what the client had said in the interview. Participants' performance was measured using interview transcripts. Independent coders judged the parts of the transcript to which the recalled items corresponded. The results indicated that the experienced counsellor group scored the highest in recalling client-presented information and that recalled contents differed among the participant groups. Implications of the results for the steps to gain counsellor expertise were discussed.Key words: counsellor, expertise, memory, interpersonal perception Counsellors' Understanding of Their ClientsBy listening to and understanding a client, a counsellor establishes a client-therapist relationship and provides professional assessments, suggestions, and treatment designed to enhance the client's ability to make the desired changes in attitudes and behaviour (e.g., Egan, 2007;Rogers, 1957;Teyber & McClure, 2011). Cognitive processing by counsellors that improves the therapeutic outcomes is the result of the accumulated experience of the counsellor. Studies using meta-analyses demonstrate a significant, although weak, positive relationship between therapeutic outcome and counsellor's experience in the field (Crits-Christoph & Mintz, 1991;Stein & Lambert, 1995). Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003), who conducted interviews with 100 counsellors,Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Chika Nagaoka, Faculty of Management, Otemon Gakuin University, 2-1-15 Nishiai, Ibaraki-shi, Osaka, 567-8502, Japan (e-mail: nagaoka@res. otemon.ac.jp).A part of this study was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No. 20530569) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. MEMORY OF CLIENT PRESENTED INFORMATION 155described qualitative changes in relation to their level of experience, suggesting that the way in which counsellors understood their clients varied qualitatively in relation to their level of experience. Counsellor expertise is a relatively neglected area in conventional empirical research (Schön, 1983;Skovholt & Jennings, 2004;Wampold, 2001). Findings from this research perspective could be applied to clinical practice and to training programs for novice counsellors.One method used in research on the understanding of discourse (i.e., discourse comprehension) is to investigate the listener's memory (Graesser, Millis, & Zwaan, 1997), which represents the listener's mental representation (e.g., Bartlett, 1932). Examination of counsellor's memory of the discourse between the counsellor and client might provide useful...

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As the SC system spread, activities of clinical psychologists in school became outreach style and SC-Teacher collaboration is becoming an important issue. In this paper, we reconsider the "collaboration", which clarify the "roles" of teachers and SCs, and propose a new paradigm. In previous research (Takashima et al., , 2008, both Japanese SCs and teachers had "SC-like" and "teacher-like" viewpoints, and inspite of their job type their individual "way of reviewing cases" ("perspective") existed as an internal framework. In this study, comparing the practice of Western (Swiss) SPs who function independently, it was discovered that Japanese SC relations are characterized by an "understanding of feelings." In order to create SC-Teacher collaborations, there is a need for a relational "multiple viewpoint mode" that takes advantage of Japanese mentality. This approach will have them reflect their own mind towards their "viewpoints" and "perspectives," rather than defining people and events through static, substantive "roles."