Computer programming has been gradually emphasized in recent computer literacy education and regarded as a requirement for all middle school students in some countries. To understand young students' perceptions about their own learning in computer programming, this study aimed to develop an instrument, Computer Programming Self-Efficacy Scale (CPSES), for all students above middle school levels. Based on Berland and Lee's computational thinking framework, this study developed the CPSES items at a literacy level and finally the instrument included the five subscales: Logical Thinking, Algorithm, Debug, Control, and Cooperation. An exploratory factor analysis and reliability tests were conducted in this study. The reliability alpha was .96 for the overall scale, and ranged from .84 to .96 for the subscales. This study also confirmed the positive correlation between computer programming experience and computer programming self-efficacy. In addition, for low-and middle-experienced learners, significant gender differences were found in two subscales: Algorithm and Debug. The CPSES can be applied as an evaluation tool in computer education, robotics education, as well as integrated STEM or STEAM education in which computer programming was regarded as a part of computer literacy.

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To explore the role of design thinking in contemporary computer literacy education, this study aimed to examine the relationship between young students’ design thinking disposition and their computer programming self-efficacy. To assess students’ design thinking disposition, this study developed the Design Thinking Disposition Scale (DTDS) with a sample of 350 junior high school students who had computer programming experience in a STEAM course. A principle axis factor analysis with the promax rotation method was used to verify the DTDS’s construct under the four dimensions: empathize, define, ideate and prototype. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability was .90 for the overall scale. Correlation analyses results showed that all the four dimensions were significantly correlated with computer programming self-efficacy assessed by CPSES. A significant regression model was found in which the three factors, ideate, prototype and define, significantly predicted the overall computer programming self-efficacy. Meanwhile, except for the ideate subscale, no gender difference was found in the young students’ design thinking dispositions. The students’ self-directed programming learning experience was shown to benefit their design thinking disposition. The DTDS can be applied to design-thinking-embedded computer literacy curricula such as makers, STEAM, or robotics education. Several further studies are also suggested.

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