'Soggy breakdown' (SB) is an internal flesh disorder of 'Honeycrisp' apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) fruit that occurs during low temperature storage. The disorder is a chilling injury (CI) in which visible symptoms typically appear after several weeks of storage, but information about the underlying metabolism associated with its induction and development is lacking. The metabolic profile of flesh tissue from wholly healthy fruit and brown and healthy tissues from fruit with SB was characterized using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and correlation networks revealed correlation among ester volatile compounds by composition and differences in phytosterol, phenolic and putative triacylglycerides (TAGs) metabolism among the tissues. anova-simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) was used to test the significance of metabolic changes linked with tissue health status. ASCA-significant components included antioxidant compounds, TAGs, and phytosterol conjugates. Relative to entirely healthy tissues, elevated metabolite levels in symptomatic tissue included γ-amino butyric acid, glycerol, sitosteryl (6'-O-palmitoyl) β-d-glucoside and sitosteryl (6'-O-stearate) β-d-glucoside, and TAGs containing combinations of 16:0, 18:3, 18:2 and 18:1 fatty acids. Reduced metabolite levels in SB tissue included 5-caffeoyl quinate, β-carotene, catechin, epicatechin, α-tocopherol, violaxanthin and sitosteryl β-d glucoside. Pathway analysis indicated aspects of primary metabolism differed according to tissue condition, although differences in metabolites involved were more subtle than those of some secondary metabolites. The results implicate oxidative stress and membrane disruption processes in SB development and constitute a diagnostic metabolic profile for the disorder.

Understanding pesticide non-target effects on natural enemies is a key element of successful conservation biological control. Due to their importance in agroecosystems worldwide, the phytoseiid mites are the most well-studied natural enemies in pesticide selectivity research. The wealth of literature associated with this topic allows for a thorough meta-analysis of pesticide non-target effects and may also indicate general trends relevant to many cropping systems. We conducted a meta-analysis using 2386 observations from 154 published papers examining the impact of pesticides on lethal (adult and juvenile mortality) and sublethal (fecundity, egg hatch) effects. Insecticides and herbicides did not statistically differ in toxicity to phytoseiids, but research on herbicide non-target effects is scarce. Specific insecticides, fungicides, and miticides were sorted into least and most harmful categories. Phytoseiid species also differed in sensitivity, with Galendromus occidentalis (Nesbitt), Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor), and Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten among the least sensitive species. Sensitivity variation may be partly due to pesticide resistance; the greatest differences between species were within older mode of action (MOA) groups, where resistance development has been documented. It has been speculated that specialist phytoseiids, which closely associate with Tetranychus spp. spider mites, have more opportunities for resistance development due to their necessary proximity to a pest that rapidly develops resistance. Effect sizes were higher for generalist phytoseiid species, supporting this hypothesis. This meta-analysis highlights pesticide types (herbicides) and MOA groups where more research is clearly needed. Our analysis also allows for more robust generalizations regarding which pesticides are harmful or selective to phytoseiids.