Circadian rhythms generated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) are entrained to the environmental light/dark cycle via intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) expressing the photopigment melanopsin and the neuropeptide PACAP. The ipRGCs regulate other non-image-forming visual functions such as the pupillary light reflex, masking behaviour and light induced melatonin suppression. To evaluate whether PACAP immunoreactive retinal projections are useful as a marker for central projection of ipRGCs in the monkey brain, we characterized the occurrence of PACAP in melanopsin expressing ipRGCs and in the retinal target areas in the brain visualized by the anterograde tracer Cholera Toxin subunit B (CtB) in combination with PACAP staining. In the retina, PACAP and melanopsin were found to be co-stored in 99% of melanopsin expressing cells characterized as inner and outer stratifying melanopsin RGCs. Two macaque monkeys were anesthetized and received a unilateral intravitreal injection of CtB. Bilateral retinal projections containing co-localized CtB and PACAP immunostaining were identified in the SCN, the lateral geniculate complex (LGN) including the pregeniculate nucleus (PrGC), the pretectal olivary nucleus (PON), the nucleus of the optic tract (NOT), the brachium of the superior colliculus (BSC), and the superior colliculus (SC). In conclusion, PACAP immunoreactive projections with co-localized CtB represent retinal projections of ipRGCs in the macaque monkey, and support previous retrograde tracer studies demonstrating that melanopsin containing retinal projections reach areas in the primate brain involved in both image and non-image-forming visual processing.

Circadian rhythms generated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) are entrained to the environmental light/dark cycle via intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) expressing the photopigment melanopsin and the neuropeptide PACAP. The ipRGCs regulate other non-image-forming visual functions such as the pupillary light reflex, masking behaviour and light induced melatonin suppression. To evaluate whether PACAP immunoreactive retinal projections are useful as a marker for central projection of ipRGCs in the monkey brain, we characterized the occurrence of PACAP in melanopsin expressing ipRGCs and in the retinal target areas in the brain visualized by the anterograde tracer Cholera Toxin subunit B (CtB) in combination with PACAP staining. In the retina, PACAP and melanopsin were found to be costored in 99% of melanopsin expressing cells characterized as inner and outer stratifying melanopsin RGCs. Two macaque monkeys were anesthetized and received a unilateral intravitreal injection of CtB. Bilateral retinal projections containing co-localized CtB and PACAP immunostaining were identified in the SCN, the lateral geniculate complex (LGN) including the pregeniculate nucleus (PrGC), the pretectal olivary nucleus (PON), the nucleus of the optic tract (NOT), the brachium of the superior colliculus (BSC), and the superior colliculus (SC). In NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript conclusion, PACAP immunoreactive projections with co-localized CtB represent retinal projections of ipRGCs in the macaque monkey, and support previous retrograde tracer studies demonstrating that melanopsin containing retinal projections reach areas in the primate brain involved in both image and non-image-forming visual processing.

Mutations in GUCY2D, the gene encoding retinal guanylate cyclase-1 (retGC1), are the leading cause of autosomal dominant cone-rod dystrophy (CORD6). Significant progress toward clinical application of gene replacement therapy for Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) due to recessive mutations in GUCY2D (LCA1) has been made, but a different approach is needed to treat CORD6 where gain of function mutations cause dysfunction and dystrophy. The CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system efficiently disrupts genes at desired loci, enabling complete gene knockout or homology directed repair. Here, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-delivered CRISPR/Cas9 was used specifically to edit/disrupt this gene's early coding sequence in mouse and macaque photoreceptors in vivo, thereby knocking out retGC1 expression and demonstrably altering retinal function and structure. Neither preexisting nor induced Cas9-specific T-cell responses resulted in ocular inflammation in macaques, nor did it limit GUCY2D editing. The results show, for the first time, the ability to perform somatic gene editing in primates using AAV-CRISPR/Cas9 and demonstrate the viability this approach for treating inherited retinal diseases in general and CORD6 in particular.

Cholinergic agents affect the light responses of many ganglion cells (GCs) in the mammalian retina by activating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Whereas retinal neurons that express β2 subunit-containing nAChRs have been characterized in the rabbit retina, expression patterns of other nAChR subtypes remain unclear. Therefore, we evaluated the expression of α7 nAChRs in retinal neurons by means of single-, double-, and triple-label immunohistochemistry. Our data demonstrate that, in the rabbit retina, several types of bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and cells in the GC layer express α7 nAChRs. At least three different populations of cone bipolar cells exhibited α7 labeling, whereas glycine-immunoreactive amacrine cells comprised the majority of α7-positive amacrine cells. Some GABAergic amacrine cells also displayed α7 immunoreactivity; α7 labeling was never detected in rod bipolar cells or rod amacrine cells (All amacrine cells). Our data suggest that activation of α7 nAChRs by acetylcholine (ACh) or choline may affect glutamate release from several types of cone bipolar cells, modulating GC responses. ACh-induced excitation of inhibitory amacrine cells might cause either inhibition or disinhibition of other amacrine and GC circuits. Finally, ACh may act on α7 nAChRs expressed by GCs themselves.

The molecular mechanism of autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (ADRP) in rats is closely associated with a persistently activated unfolded protein response (UPR). If unchecked, the UPR might trigger apoptosis, leading to photoreceptor death. One of the UPR-activated cellular signaling culminating in apoptotic photoreceptor cell death is linked to an increase in intracellular Ca2+. Therefore, we validated whether ADRP retinas experience a cytosolic Ca2+ overload, and whether sustained UPR in the wild-type retina could promote retinal degeneration through Ca2+-mediated calpain activation. We performed an ex vivo experiment to measure intracellular Ca2+ in ADRP retinas as well as to detect the expression levels of proteins that act as Ca2+ sensors. In separate experiments with the subretinal injection of tunicamycin (UPR inducer) and a mixture of calcium ionophore (A231278) and thapsigargin (SERCA2b inhibitor) we assessed the consequences of a sustained UPR activation and increased intracellular Ca2+ in the wild-type retina, respectively, by performing scotopic ERG, histological, and western blot analyses. Results of the study revealed that induced UPR in the retina activates calpain-mediated signaling, and increased intracellular Ca2+ is capable of promoting retinal degeneration. A significant decline in ERG amplitudes at 6 weeks post treatment was associated with photoreceptor cell loss that occurred through calpain-activated CDK5-pJNK-Csp3/7 pathway. Similar calpain activation was found in ADRP rat retinas. A twofold increase in intracellular Ca2+ and up- and downregulations of ER membrane-associated Ca2+-regulated IP3R channels and SERCA2b transporters were detected. Therefore, sustained UPR activation in the ADRP rat retinas could promote retinal degeneration through increased intracellular Ca2+ and calpain-mediated apoptosis.