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This paper reviews the current status of kinship research in the United States and identifies factors that might account for the declining interest in the subject among family researchers. The analysis uses both structural and cultural factors to illustrate how they can determine the diversity in kinship functioning that ranges from those family systems where kinship relationships flourish and those where they play a small part in family life. The structural and demographic variables determine the numbers and availability of kin, whereas the cultural variables determine the norms that establish the motivation to sustain kinship bonds. To illustrate how these factors operate among subgroups in the United States, I analyze three types of kinship systems: the lineal emphasis in White families of the very old; the collateral emphasis in the families of their Black counterparts; and the egocentric emphasis of White suburban families that are undergoing marital change.

This report analyzes friendship patterns of individuals 85 and older, 77% of whom are women. Despite high levels of disability and the loss of age peers, the majority were in frequent contact with friends and still had a close friend. Over 31 months, however, the predictors of friendship involvement changed. At Time 1, mood was most important, but by Time 3, increased disability was most important. Qualitative data describe how the constraints and facilitators lead to changing criteria for friendships in late late life.

While research has documented the strengths of the family as a support system to the elderly, there is less understanding of what happens when supports are needed over an extended time. To study family care when support needs persist for a long period, 115 older adults were studied after discharge from the hospital and again about 8 months later. Both structured and unstructured data were collected. Analysis focused on supports defined as family contact and aid, and on the more subjective factors influencing the quality of the supports. The overall results showed that few of the elderly were abandoned by their families, although most were cared for by a primary caregiver rather than the family as a unit. Although a high level of strain was reported, particularly by children who were caregivers, most needs of the elderly were met, and only 17% of the sample were institutionalized. For the group as a whole, the mean functional level had stabilized after 8 months. As a result, family supports declined, even though more patients reported problems with morale and loneliness. A comparison of patients who had achieved independent functioning with those who remained dependent showed that caregivers of dependent patients experienced more strain; more of these families used formal supports. (JAC)

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