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In an effort to determine the usefulness of standardized job observations, 35 observers were trained to observe the characteristics of jobs. Employees (N -448) were observed for 2 hours and were also interviewed. The observation measures were assessed to determine if they possessed repeatability, homogeneity, and convergence. Of the 19 job dimensions studied, 11 demonstrated repeatability and homogeneity. Six of the dimensions were tested for convergence with the interview data, and four showed moderate convergence. It was concluded that job observations are a potentially useful way to measure the characteristics of jobs, but that they have significant limitations.Virtually all theory and research concerned with employee attitudes and behaviors assumes that they are influenced by the objective characteristics of the employee's job and work environment. While studies of organizations frequently include measures of these characteristics, generally these measures consist only of self-reports by members of the organization. This heavy reliance on selfreport data has been criticized because of the problems and biases inherent in self-reports and because of the dangers of depending solely on any one measurement approach (Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, & Sechrest, 1966). It has also been noted that because they are subjective, self-report measures cannot be used in efforts to improve the quality of jobs by legislation (Lawler, 1973b). Structured observation by trained observers is a possible alternative methodology. Clearly it has some disadvantages because an observer must be present in the work place. The cost can be great-observers must be trained and sup-This research was conducted under contract with the Manpower Administration of the U.S. Department of Labor. Researchers undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express their own judgment. Interpretation or viewpoints stated in this paper do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of the Department of Labor. The authors would like to thank Robert P. Quinn for his help with the study.Requests for reprints should be sent to Edward E.

This research explored the moderating effects of subordinate participation in decision making and subordinate job difficulty on their responses to different uses of control systems by their superiors. In a sample of managers from a moderately large U.S. organization, both of these factors were found to moderate the ways subordinates responded to the perceptions that their superiors used control systems for goal setting, evaluation, problem solving, and contingent reward allocations.The results of the study indicated that the use of control systems for contingent reward allocation produced defensive subordinate responses under all conditions, but also produced the functional response of effort when subordinate participation was low and job difficulty high. The use for goal setting appeared to result in functional responses when subordinate participation was high, and in dysfunctional responses when participation was low. The use for evaluation and the use for problem solving both seemed to be aspects of a collaborative developmental use of the control systems. This use pattern appeared to have primarily functional effects, although the results were more functional when the subordinate jobs were not difficult, and when they participated in decision making. Based on the results several propositions are formulated for future testing.

This study examines the effects of introducing an ongoing feedback system into 10 branches of a Midwestern bank. The feedback system was designed to facilitate collaborative control and problem solving in the branches and was hypothesized to raise the level of participation in the branches and increase their effectiveness. The effects of the new feedback system were evaluated by observing its use and by comparing questionnaire and archival information from the experimental branches with similar data collected from 10 branches where the feedback system was not implemented. The results of the study indicated that the new feedback system produced functional consequences in some of the work groups in the experimental branches, but not in others. It appeared that in some cases the consequences were due to an increase in participative control processes, while in others, they were due to an increase in directive management. It is concluded that the effects of different feedback system designs are probably contingent on contextual factors such as the problem-solving skills and orientations of organization members, the nature of the reward systems existing in the organization, and task and individual differences among work units.

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