Recently, a number of critical discourse analysts have been using the concept of 'manipulation' as an analytic tool to study political language. The attraction is clear:the concept is inherently critical , for by calling a particular use of language 'manipulation', the analyst is likely to be criticising that use. If the concept is to be analytically as well as critically, useful, then analysts must identify what is wrong with the language that they are identifying as 'manipulation'. This is where the difficulties lie. Different analysts are defining 'manipulation' in different ways, thereby highlighting different, even opposing, characteristics.In an important paper, Teun van Dijk (2006) has argued that manipulation occurs when the powerful abuse their power in order to influence those without power, in ways that are against the interests of the powerless but that are in the interests of the powerful (see also van Dijk, 2008). However, other analysts have denied that the formal possession of power need be involved in manipulation (Hasrati & Mohammadzadeh, 2012). Some claim that discursive 'manipulation' involves deceit because manipulators typically conceal what they are doing from their victims in order that the victims do not think ill of them (Blass, 2005;Harré, 1985;Pinto, 2004).Other analysts, however, suggest that manipulation involves using fallacious arguments, regardless of any intentional deceit (Danler, 2005;Kienpointner, 2005;Rigotti, 2005). David Buss, a cognitive social psychologist, explicitly defined 'manipulation' to exclude the possibility that malevolent or dishonest intention need be involved (Buss et al, 1987).On the other hand, some analysts claim that manipulation involves using specific fallacious arguments, regardless of any intentional deceit (Danler, 2005; 4 Kienpointner, 2005;Rigotti, 2005). Regarding political oratory, some critical analysts claim the key element of 'manipulation' is that speakers exert cognitive control over their audiences. According to Chilton, manipulation depends on the propagator controlling or dominating 'an intended receiver's mind' (Chilton, 2005, p. 17). In cognitive accounts, analysts suggest that receivers are encouraged, and even constrained, to process messages superficially so that they end up with misleading conceptions. Maillat and Oswald (2011) highlight the importance of concealment in this process because 'the success of manipulation lies in its covertness' (pp. 70-1; see also de Saussure, 2005).One might think that there is an impasse because any critical analyst, who wishes to use 'manipulation', is faced with different conceptions. Does manipulation involve conscious deceit, the abuse of power, erroneous arguments, covertness, superficial cognitive processing and so on? The present study aims to provide a way out of this impasse. Rather than adopting a top-down strategy of proposing a definition before proceeding to analysing examples, we offer a bottom-up strategy of advancing towards, rather than starting from, a definition. We will exa...

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Despite the development of models describing Fixed Cutter (FC) bit performance, selection is still made on the basis of visible, geometric features. Optimal selection is complicated further by the large variation in characteristics of cutting structures, in combination with a diverse range of gauge lengths and geometries. A set of performance indices is presented for FC bits. These are derived from a sophisticated mathematical model and describe performance in terms of Rate of Penetration (ROP), Durability, Stability, and Steerability. Once the relative importance of each index is established, the optimal bit for the application can be selected. Due to the growing diversity of directional tools, a specialist interface for Rotary Steerable Systems (RSS) is also presented. This software incorporates logic regarding tool operation and trajectory requirement, and assesses these against key characteristics of the bit including length, profile, gauge, cutting structure, and sidecutting capability. The software will list bits ranked by decreasing suitability. Bits can now be modeled routinely and described in terms of their technical interaction with the drilling assembly and the formation. Selection on the basis of modeling and this interaction is novel and valuable, and will provide consistent selection and improved performance. Performance summaries are documented for global RSS applications. Use of the software lead to optimal bit design selection. Some of the designs selected had not been considered suitable from prior visual review. The designs delivered excellent performance in terms of both footage and penetration rates. In addition, they were accurately matched to the specific RSS utilized, enabling the system to efficiently deliver the required directional control. Introduction Offshore drilling in West Africa poses several drilling challenges which have limited drilling performance and build rate capabilities in directional applications. The extremely soft sandstone and shale lithologies in the vertical intermediate section are prone to erosion and hole enlargement with high hydraulic energy. Hole enlargement reduces deflection forces for commercial Rotary Steerable (RS) tools as well as mud motors, which significantly decreases build rate capabilities and limits directional plans and capabilities. The associated hole enlargement in the vertical section creates a drilling environment that is subject to increased risk of lateral vibration (bit whirl), which even in soft formations is capable of catastrophic damage to BHA components and the bit cutting structure. This, in turn, results in reduced drilling performance and increased drilling costs.