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3D WO3/C nanorod architectures have been employed as binder-free composite anodes in lithium ion batteries.

advance at the end of the 1990s, the current electrification needs in nearly all sectors would be difficult to imagine, striving our daily life from miniaturized applications up to massive energy storage demands in transportation. With regards to zero-emission passenger transportation using battery powered vehicles, the advantage of the lithium-ion battery seems currently undisputed.This steadily increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries currently raises the question of whether and how long the availability of raw materials can be guaranteed. Moreover, the constantly expanding range of applications for the lithium-ion technology means that the safety aspects to be fulfilled are becoming ever more stringent, which are known to be the weak spot of this system due to the high reactivity of lithium. [1][2][3][4] Consequently, the lithium-ion battery is subjected to enormous performance pressure, because as a universal remedy it must meet the most diverse requirements. [5] Nevertheless, the lithium-ion battery is meanwhile used ubiquitously due to the current absence of suitable and technologically mature alternatives, which further exacerbates the raw material situation. [5,6] Due to the enormous application potential of the lithium-ion battery, other battery technologies (nickel-cadmium, nickelmetal hydride, lead-acid) that have been known for a long time are meanwhile pushed out of the market or represent only niche products known for just a specific application. [7][8][9] This is true for the zinc-air battery too, which is mainly known to the consumer as a non-rechargeable battery for hearing aids. However, it has also been known as a battery and mobile charger for military applications, since it is heavy duty under the most adverse conditions, while allowing high energy density and maintaining high safety requirements. [10][11][12] Yet, already in the mid-1990s, zinc-air batteries were on the verge of their breakthrough as a rechargeable energy storage device that would usher in the complete electrification of Germany's postal fleet at that time. [13] As a mechanically rechargeable battery system in a van fleet of 60 cars, the used zinc metal (Zn) anodes were removed as a full pack from the spent battery set and replaced by a fresh metal pack to recover the battery. With that, a usage of more than 320 km with an energy density of 200 Wh kg −1 had already been achieved under realistic conditions. [13] In times of an ever-increasing demand for portable energy storage systems, post-lithium-based battery systems are increasingly coming into the focus of current research. In this realm, zinc-air batteries can be considered a very promising candidate to expand the existing portfolio of lithium-based rechargeable battery systems due to their high theoretical energy density of 1086 Wh kg −1 . Despite a steady increase in research over the past 5 years, a breakthrough in realizing fully electrically rechargeable zinc-air batteries has yet to come. This perspective article highlights pitfalls that have probably hampered ...

Metal–air batteries hold a competitive energy density and are frequently recommended as a solution for low-cost, environmentally friendly electrochemical energy storage applications. Rechargeable zinc–air batteries are prominently studied future devices for energy storage applications. Up to date and despite substantial efforts over the last decades, it is not commercialized on a broader scale because of inadequate performance. Most essential, the ultimate long-term functional zinc–air battery has yet to be discovered. This challenge should be resolved appropriately before articulating the zinc–air batteries to commercial reality and be deployed widespread. We review the present status and some breakthroughs in rechargeable zinc–air batteries research in the last few years, focusing on the anode-related issues. A critical overview of the last five years of the still less explored but essential aspects of rechargeability in zinc–air batteries, such as zinc utilization, solid electrolyte interface, and cell design is presented, some perspectives on possible solutions are offered.