Landscape structure influences the distribution and abundance of anopheline mosquitoes and has an indirect impact on malaria transmission. This work aimed to determine the effect of land cover and landscape fragmentation on anopheline mosquito abundance and diversity in an important Colombian malaria endemic area, the Bajo Cauca region. Diversity indices were calculated for Anopheles mosquitoes collected in various localities of the region. Land cover types were characterized using orthorectified aerial photographs to estimate landscape metrics. The relationship between landscape fragmentation and species diversity was evaluated by regression analysis. The correlation between species abundance and land cover types was determined using canonical correspondence analyses. Results showed a statistically significant tendency for a lower diversity of the Anopheles community in landscapes with higher patch number, patch density and effective mesh size. For most species, there was evidence of a significant relationship between species abundance and land covers modified by anthropic activities which generate forest loss. These results indicate that activities that modify the landscape structure and land cover composition generate changes that affect the spatial distribution and composition of epidemiologically-important Anophele s species, which may impact malaria distribution in a region. This information is useful to guide control interventions that promote unfavorable landscapes for malaria vector propagation.

Introduction: Immunological markers have been described during COVID-19 and persist after recovery. Those immune alterations are associated with clinical features among SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals. Although, studies reporting a comprehensive analysis of these immune alterations are still limited. Objective: To evaluate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, antibody response, and phenotype and function of NK cells and T cells in a Colombian familiar cluster of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Materials and methods: Proinflammatory cytokines were evaluated by RT-PCR and ELISA. Frequency, phenotype and function of NK cells (cocultures with K562 cells) and T-cells (stimulated with Spike/RdRp peptides) were assessed by flow cytometry; anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies were determined by indirect immunofluorescence and plaque reduction neutralization assay. Results: During COVID-19, we observed a high pro-inflammatory cytokine production and reduced CD56bright NK cells and cytotoxic response. Compared with healthy controls, infected individuals had a higher frequency of dysfunctional CD8+ T cells CD38+HLA-DR-. During the acute phase, CD8+ T cells stimulated with viral peptides exhibited a monofunctional response characterized by a high IL-10 production. Nevertheless, during recovery, a bifunctional response was observed, characterized by the co-expression of CD107a and Granzyme B or Perforin. Conclusion: Although pro-inflammatory response is a hallmark of SARS-CoV-2 infection, other phenotypic and functional alterations in NK cells and CD8+ T cells could be associated with the outcome of COVID-19. However, additional studies are required to understand these alterations and, to guide future immunotherapy strategies.