Manganese (Mn) is an essential micronutrient required for the normal development of many organs, including the brain. Although its roles as a cofactor in several enzymes and in maintaining optimal physiology are well-known, the overall biological functions of Mn are rather poorly understood. Alterations in body Mn status are associated with altered neuronal physiology and cognition in humans, and either overexposure or (more rarely) insufficiency can cause neurological dysfunction. The resultant balancing act can be viewed as a hormetic U-shaped relationship for biological Mn status and optimal brain health, with changes in the brain leading to physiological effects throughout the body and vice versa. This review discusses Mn homeostasis, biomarkers, molecular mechanisms of cellular transport, and neuropathological changes associated with disruptions of Mn homeostasis, especially in its excess, and identifies gaps in our understanding of the molecular and biochemical mechanisms underlying Mn homeostasis and neurotoxicity.

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We instituted a flipped-classroom learning environment for teaching advanced undergraduate genetics that consisted of pre-recorded lecture material followed by face to face workshops. Student engagement was promoted, and learning reinforced, by a recursive arrangement of electronically delivered formative and summative multiple choice question assessment in every workshop instead of a final end of semester examination. Our teaching approach dramatically increased student attendance, and student engagement with instructors. It simplified examination administration, and adapted easily to the online-only requirements of the SARS-CoV2 pandemic of 2020. The majority of student feedback regarding the revised learning format was positive.