Environmental concern leads to legislation to stimulate the further integration of renewable energy in the Dutch electricity supply system. Distributed generation is suited for the integration of renewable energy sources. Furthermore it can be used to generate both heat and electricity in a more efficient way using ptCHP. Unfortunately, the additional integration of distributed generation has some negative consequences for the organisation of the electricity market. Programme responsible parties have to set up E-programmes which describe trade amongst them. Due to the higher unpredictability and uncontrollability of distributed generation, the E-programmes tend to be less accurate. This results in imbalance between supply and demand of electricity which has to be settled by the transmission system operator. This leads to extra costs for the programme responsible parties which could finally result in a drawback for the integration of renewable energy sources. Therefore market based solutions have to be created. INTRODUCTION minutes. The TSO verifies the E-programmes on consistency before approving them. The production and Due to environmental concerns and resulting demand for electricity should always be in balance since international legislation on the emissions of greenhouse electricity cannot yet be stored on a large scale. On the gasses, the use of renewable energy sources is day of the realisation of the E-programme, all stimulated. Renewable energy sources are often used in programme responsible parties have to exchange distributed electricity generation because of their electricity exactly as described in the E-programme. relatively low energy density. Unfortunately, the further Deviations result in imbalance in the system. integration of distributed generation (DG) in the electricity market causes a number of obstacles which To determine the E-programmes, programme have to be tackled. Many of those issues are purely responsible parties use profiles to estimate small loads. technical. Nevertheless some of them are related to the These profiles are based on historic data and external market and the organisation of the electricity supply conditions. Large loads are taken into account via data system. This paper discusses the problems, related to acquiring. Production of large facilities is known imbalance settlement, which are induced by the because of commitment of producers and production of unpredictability and uncontrollability of DG. small facilities is estimated. Due to uncertainties in the load profile of consumers there is always a certain imbalance in the electricity production system which

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This paper presents a robust and adaptive out-of-step (OOS) protection algorithm, using wide-area information, that can be applied on tie-lines in observable power systems. The developed algorithm is based upon real-time computation of the system impedance and makes use of the wellknown power-angle characteristic. In this way, a setting-less OOS concept in real-time environment is developed, which is applicable for tie-lines in an arbitrary power system. Furthermore, the developed protection algorithm is installed on hardware and is verified by numerous tests. The performance of the new hardware implementation is compared to the traditional impedance-based OOS protection methods. The results confirm that the proposed algorithm detects OOS conditions faster and more reliably than the traditional impedance-based solutions.INDEX TERMS Out-of-step protection, power system transient stability, tie-lines, real-time HiL testing.

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