If health psychology is to maximize impacts on health, there will need to be a shift from relying primarily on efficacy trials to increasing reliance on effectiveness trials. Efficacy trials use homogeneous, highly motivated samples with minimal complications from a single setting receiving intensive treatments delivered under highly controlled conditions. Two effectiveness trials on bullying prevention illustrate the use of a heterogeneous population from multiple sites receiving a low intensity tailored treatment delivered under highly variable conditions. In spite of considerable noise the effectiveness trials produced robust results (odds ratios of about four) that bode well for population impacts under real-world dissemination.

Study Objective: To evaluate the effect of continuing medical education (CME) activities on patient reported outcomes with regard to (1) screening for excessive sleepiness (ES) and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and (2) appropriate referral and treatment. Methods: A total of 725 patients were recruited from 75 providers who either participated or did not participate in Transtheoretical Model (TTM)-based OSA CME activities. Patient reported outcomes from participating (n = 36) and non-participating providers (n = 39) were compared using generalized estimating equations examining random effects of provider as unit of assignment. Results: Patients' reports demonstrate that participating physicians were 1.7 times more likely to initiate discussion of sleep problems than non-participating physicians (t 1,411 = 3.71, p = 0.05) and 2.25-2.86 times more likely to administer validated measures for OSA (Epworth Sleepiness Scale and STOP-BANG). Patient reports also indicated that participating clinicians (79.9%) were signifi cantly more likely to recommend seeing a sleep specialist compared to non-participating clinicians (60.7%; t 1,348 = 9.1, p < 0.01, OR = 2.6). Furthermore, while 89.4% of participating clinicians recommended a sleep study, only 73.2% of the non-participating physicians recommended one (t 1,363 = 11.46, p < 0.001, OR = 3.1). Conclusions: Participation in TTM-based OSA CME activities was associated with improved patient reported outcomes compared to the non-participating clinicians. Keywords: obstructive sleep apnea, patient-reported outcomes, continuing medical education, behavior change, stages of change, Transtheoretical Model Citation: Johnson SS, Castle PH, Van Marter D, Roc A, Neubauer D, Auerbach S, DeAguiar E. The effect of physician continuing medical education on patient-reported outcomes for identifying and optimally managing obstructive sleep apnea.