The purpose of this study was to briefly illustrate some of the challenges and realities of national and international Paralympic sports. The elite disabled athlete paradigm is still not widely known in the world of regular sports competitions. The winning elite disabled athletes are restricted to a few countries, including the U.S., Canada, Germany, China, and Australia, with limited distribution of disability sport opportunities in other countries. This tendency for the success of a minority of countries reflects global problems of social vulnerability in accessibility (e.g., in dismantling the stigma of disability), political vulnerability (e.g., representative organizations of sports for the disabled do not fully pratice the philosophy of "sport for all"), and economic vulnerability (e.g., lack of opportunities for training, assistive sports technology, and sponsorships). Furthermore, elite Paralympic athletes have become veterans. For example, the participation of Brazilian elite athletes in the 1984 Paralympics marked the beginning of a new generation of athletes (approximately 16%) who returned to the Games in 1988. In both 2008 and 2012, nearly 28% of total participants were Brazilian veterans. Although this picture reveals longevity of athletes in the sport, there are many limitations in sports accessibility, often due to geographical centralization of opportunities in large urban centers. Yet, today, the world of Paralympic sport has been transformed into a sports spectacle, thanks to the exceptional performance of some athletes, to the technology of mass communication, and to the support of audiences during the Games. These sport "superstars" offer the world new images and new constructs of "ability." While this forum has helped to bring attention to these "heroes," other Brazilian athletes (and from other countries as well) are still waiting for their opportunities. Indeed, worldwide, young blind individuals, those in wheelchairs, amputees, or simply the uncoordinated, expect to play, run, swim, and take part in the international model of "sport for all." They expect sports opportunities to be a part of their daily lives, an option for rehabilitation and the preservation of health, and a basic human right.

This study assessed the effects of haptic information on the postural control systems of individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID), through the use of a nonrigid tool that we call the "anchor system" (e.g., ropes attached to graduated weights that rest on the floor). Eleven participants with ID were asked to stand, blindfolded, on a balance beam placed at two heights (10 and 20 cm), for 30 s, while using the anchor system at two weights. The lighter anchor weight appeared to improve the individuals' balance in contrast to a control task condition; therefore, we concluded that haptic sensitivity was more significant in helping to orient the body than was the anchor's mechanical support alone.Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) invariably exhibit poor or delayed postural adjustments at early stages; and, while many eventually acquire most fundamental motor milestones (e.g., upright position, walking, and running), they continue to experience balance problems as they age (Mauerberg-deCastro & Kinzler, 2000). Individuals with ID, such as Down syndrome, are known to have slower reactions to perturbations to posture, regardless of their ages (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 1985). Carvalho and Almeida (2009) demonstrated that individuals with Down syndrome adopted a pattern of cocontraction in their leg muscles, making them unable to modulate the magnitude of postural response to a task with varied degrees of instability. This finding reflects a proprioceptive deficit for this group. In addition, as individuals with ID age, lifestyle and health-related problems also contribute to postural instability and often increase the risk of falls and of loss Stabilization of Posture and Intellectual Disability 209 of independence (Hale, Bray, & Littmann, 2007). Lahtinen, Rintala, and Malin (2007), reporting a 30-year longitudinal study of individuals with ID, found that in adolescence, 25% of the ID participants were able to complete a static balance task (standing on one foot for 60 s, i.e., stork stand test); in adulthood the total of those who could perform the task dropped to less than 10%.Researchers have focused on causes for poor balance skills found in adults with ID, as well as on the adaptation process underlying postural control. Knowledge about the role of sensory information on postural control in groups that are known to have poor balance, for example, has added to our understanding of how, under a perception-action approach, sensory-motor mechanisms function (Gomes & Barela, 2007;Jeka, Easton, Bentzen, & Lackner, 1996;Prioli, Cardozo, Freitas Junior, & Barela, 2006). Numerous researchers have investigated how postural sway can be attenuated through an individual's acquisition of additional sensory information (somatosensory or visual;Jeka & Lackner, 1994;Jeka et al., 1996) or by the introduction of task demands to a challenged postural system (Prioli et al., 2006). Sources of postural disruptions can be task-manipulated (i.e., unexpected surface displacement, blindfolding of the participant, etc.), but...

We tested the short-term effects of a nonrigid tool, identified as an "anchor system" (e.g., ropes attached to varying weights resting on the floor), on the postural stabilization of blindfolded adults with and without intellectual disabilities (ID). Participants held a pair of anchors-one in each hand, under three weight conditions (250 g, 500 g and 1,000 g), while they performed a restricted balance task (standing for 30 s on a balance beam placed on top of a force platform). These conditions were called anchor practice trials. Before and after the practice trials, a condition without anchors was tested. Control practice groups, who practiced blocks of trials without anchors, included individuals with and without ID. The anchor system improved subjects' balance during the standing task, for both groups. For the control groups, the performance of successive trials in the condition without the anchor system showed no improvement in postural stability. The individuals with intellectual disability, as well as their peers without ID, used the haptic cues of nonrigid tools (i.e., the anchor system) to stabilize their posture, and the short-term stabilizing effects appeared to result from their previous use of the anchor system.

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Abstract-This study assessed the attitudes about the inclusion of students with disability by professionals in education and health, relative to their experience and training. We compared three groups: 20 teachers and trainees who worked in an adapted physical education program (GI); 75 professionals from the municipal education system of Rio Claro subdivided according to their experience-CGyes e CGno, respectively, with and without experience. We used the inventory adapted by Palla (2001) to assess participants' attitudes and self-concepts. Overall, individuals in the group that participated in the intervention maintained their tendency of being favorable toward inclusion. Teachers in regular school settings in the municipal school system of Rio Claro (São Paulo, Brazil), regardless of their experience with inclusive settings, remain mostly indecisive about the benefits of inclusion. Keywords: inclusion, adapted physical education, attitudesResumo-"Atitudes de educadores e educadores físicos sobre inclusão. Efeitos da participação em um programa inclusivo de educação física adaptada." O presente estudo avaliou a atitude sobre a aceitação da inclusão de deficientes por profissionais da área de educação e saúde, conforme sua experiência e formação. Para isso, foram comparados três grupos: 20 professores e estagiários que atuaram em programa de educação física adaptada (GI); 75 profissionais da rede municipal de educação de Rio Claro, subdivididos conforme sua experiência-CGyes e CGno, com e sem experiência, respectivamente. Foi utilizado o inventário adaptado por Palla (2001) para avaliar as atitudes e o autoconceito dos participantes. Em geral, os indivíduos que participaram da intervenção mantiveram sua tendência favorável à inclusão. Os professores em contextos escolares regulares na rede municipal de ensino de Rio Claro (São Paulo, Brasil), independentemente da sua experiência com inclusão, continuam indecisos sobre os benefícios da inclusão. Palavras-chaves: inclusão, educação física adaptada, atitudesResumen-"Las actitudes de los educadores y educadores físicos acerca de la inclusión . Efectos de la participación en un programa inclusivo de educación física adaptada." El presente estudio evaluó la actitud en relación a la aceptación de la inclusión de discapacitados por profesionales en el área de educación y salud, de acuerdo a su experiencia y titulación. Para ello, se compararon tres grupos: 20 profesores y practicantes que actuaron en el programa de educación física adaptada (GI), 75 profesionales de la educación municipal de Rio Claro, subdivididos de acuerdo a su experiencia-CGno y CGyes, respectivamente con y sin experiencia. Se utilizó el inventario adaptado por Palla (2001) para evaluar las actitudes y el autoconcepto de los participantes. En general, las personas que participaron en la intervención mantuvieron su tendencia favorable hacia la inclusión. Los profesores en entornos escolares regulares en las escuelas municipales de Rio Claro (Sao Paulo, Brasil), independientemente de su experiencia c...