In this paper, we will review both past and recent progresses in the generation, detection and application of intense terahertz (THz) radiation. We will restrict the review to laser based intense few-cycle THz sources, and thus will not include sources such as synchrotron-based or narrowband sources. We will first review the various methods used for generating intense THz radiation, including photoconductive antennas (PCAs), optical rectification sources (especially the tilted-pulse-front lithium niobate source and the DAST source, but also those using other crystals), air plasma THz sources and relativistic laser–plasma sources. Next, we will give a brief introduction on the common methods for coherent THz detection techniques (namely the PCA technique and the electro-optic sampling), and point out the limitations of these techniques for measuring intense THz radiation. We will then review three techniques that are highly suited for detecting intense THz radiation, namely the air breakdown coherent detection technique, various single-shot THz detection techniques, and the spectral-domain interferometry technique. Finally, we will give an overview of the various applications that have been made possible with such intense THz sources, including nonlinear THz spectroscopy of condensed matter (optical-pump/THz-probe, THz-pump/THz-probe, THz-pump/optical-probe), nonlinear THz optics, resonant and non-resonant control of material (such as switching of superconductivity, magnetic and polarization switching) and controlling the nonlinear response of metamaterials. We will also provide a short perspective on the future of intense THz sources and their applications.

Terahertz spectroscopy was used to study the absorption of bovine serum albumin (BSA) in water. The Diamond Light Source operating in a low alpha mode generated coherent synchrotron radiation that covered a useable spectral bandwidth of 0.3-3.3 THz (10-110 cm(-1)). As the BSA concentration was raised, there was a nonlinear change in absorption inconsistent with Beer's law. At low BSA concentrations (0-1 mM), the absorption remained constant or rose slightly. Above a concentration of 1 mM BSA, a steady decrease in absorption was observed, which was followed by a plateau that started at 2.5 mM. Using a overlapping hydration layer model, the hydration layer was estimated to extend 15 Å from the protein. Calculation of the corrected absorption coefficient (αcorr) for the water around BSA by subtracting the excluded volume of the protein provides an alternative approach to studying the hydration layer that provides evidence for complexity in the population of water around BSA.

We present a straightforward route for extreme pulse compression, which relies on moderately driving self-phase modulation (SPM) over an extended propagation distance. This avoids that other detrimental nonlinear mechanisms take over and deteriorate the SPM process. The long propagation is obtained by means of a hollow-core fiber (HCF), up to 6 m in length. This concept is potentially scalable to TW pulse peak powers at kW average power level. As a proof of concept, we demonstrate 33-fold pulse compression of a 1 mJ, 6 kHz, 170 fs Yb laser down to 5.1 fs (1.5 cycles at 1030 nm), by employing a single HCF and subsequent chirped mirrors with an overall transmission of 70%.

We study the Fermi energy level dependence of nonlinear terahertz (THz) transmission of gated multi-layer and single-layer graphene transferred onto sapphire and quartz substrates. The two samples represent two limits of low-field impurity scattering: short-range neutral and long-range charged impurity scattering, respectively. We observe an increase in the transmission as the field amplitude is increased due to intraband absorption bleaching starting at fields above 8 kV/cm. This effect arises from a field-induced reduction in THz conductivity that depends strongly on the Fermi energy. We account for intraband absorption using a free carrier Drude model that includes neutral and charged impurity scattering as well as optical phonon scattering. We find that although the Fermi-level dependence in the monolayer and five-layer samples is quite different, both exhibit a strong dependence on the field amplitude that cannot be explained on the basis of an increase in the lattice temperature alone. Our results provide a deeper understanding of transport in graphene devices operating at THz frequencies and in modest kV/cm field strengths where nonlinearities exist.

Dielectric resonators are key elements in many applications in micro to millimeter wave circuits, including ultra-narrow band filters and frequency-determining components for precision frequency synthesis. Distributed-layered and bulk low-loss crystalline and polycrystalline dielectric structures have become very important for building these devices. Proper design requires careful electromagnetic characterization of low-loss material properties. This includes exact simulation with precision numerical software and precise measurements of resonant modes. For example, we have developed the Whispering Gallery mode technique for microwave applications, which has now become the standard for characterizing low-loss structures. This paper will give some of the most common characterization techniques used in the micro to millimeter wave regime at room and cryogenic temperatures for designing high-Q dielectric loaded cavities.