This work examines the potential valorization of mullet roe by-products for the production of mullet roe oil using mild processes. Three different extraction methods with potential of scale-up for the food industry, namely pressure (PE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and solvent extraction (SE) are examined. Mild temperature conditions to prevent oil oxidation and (wherever applicable) food-grade solvents are used. The oil yield, the composition of oils in fatty acids by GC-FID, the level of oil oxidation (peroxide value (PV), p-anisidine value (AV), K 232 K 268 , TOTOX)) and the antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS) are determined. SE provided the highest oil recovery, followed by SFE and PE (68%, 28% and 10% respectively). The extracted oils had a high concentration of EPA and DHA and a total of 20.7%-24.3% of identified PUFAs among the fatty acids. Oxidation was the lowest in the SFE extracted oil followed by PE, PV was <2.5 meq O2 , AV≤10 and TOTOX <15 in all examined oil samples. Further research is needed to optimize processing conditions for the increase in oil recovery.

In the European legal order, the criterion of ‘business risk-assumption’ is increasingly being used by the ECJ as an element that would point to the existence of an independent working relationship. To what type of risks is the Court referring to? What are the normative underpinnings of this criterion and is it still effective in classifying modern-day workers? This paper responds to these questions by analysing and critically evaluating the use of ‘business risk-assumption’ as a criterion for the determination of EU employment status. More precisely, in section 2, I revisit the classical paradigm that led to the adoption of this criterion and demonstrate how it has been superseded by recent changes in market structures. In section 3, I show why employment status cannot just be left up to the parties and advocate for the need for an alternative ‘risk’-based criterion that would mitigate the deficiencies of the current framework, precipitating the fair mutualisation of risks between the parties. Finally, in section 4, I present and critically evaluate alternative ‘risk’-related criteria that have been proposed in the literature. After analysing the advantages and disadvantages of each approach, I argue in favour of a classification criterion based on the ‘involuntary assumption of risks’ measured by the ‘inability of a person to spread his risks’. If adopted, the proffered criterion would lead to the expansion of the EU nomen juris of ‘worker’, allowing for the protection of vulnerable quasi-subordinate persons that are excluded from the current EU ‘worker’ definition.

The article examines the reach, protective effects and limitations of the recently adopted European Union (EU) Directive on Transparent and Predictable Working Conditions. After explaining the need for a new instrument, the article analyses the Directive’s protective provisions. Cases of the European Court of Justice are presented to provide the wider context and explain how the EU social acquis impacts upon the implementation of the Directive. Finally, new developments in the EU labour and social field are discussed, making recommendations of possible avenues for providing protection to a larger category of workers.

Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) roe is used for the production of high nutritional and added‐value delicacies. Its lipid fraction is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and bioactive compounds. This study examines scalable oil extraction methods for mullet roe oil extraction. Namely, solvent extraction (SE) using ethanol in two different temperatures, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) using CO2‐ethanol mixture (SFE‐E) in two different temperatures, expeller oil press (EP) extraction, expeller oil press combined with ethanol extraction (EP‐SE) and wet reduction (WR) are examined. The methods are evaluated with regard to the oil yield and recovery, the oil oxidation and the composition in fatty acids, and polar compounds and unsaponifiable matter. EP‐SE and SE provide the highest oil recovery for tested extraction temperatures (76% and 65% respectively), followed by SFE‐E (46%) and EP (36%). Extracted oils present high PUFA content (28.5–33.9%). The type of extraction process and the process variables affect oil oxidation as well as the concentration of polar compounds and unsaponifiable matter. In terms of oxidation levels, 85% of the extracted oil samples were within the limits set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The potential of the examined methods for industrial mullet roe oil production is discussed. Practical applications: Oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids was extracted from stripped mullet roe. The work proposes several scalable extraction methods using mild conditions which could be applied to obtain edible and high nutritional value mullet roe oil with high recovery reaching up to 76%. The same methods could be employed also for mullet roe by‐products. The obtained results improve the knowledge regarding the potential of roe valorization for oil extraction as well as the effect of the extraction method on the oil yield, main composition features and the quality characteristics of oil extracted by mullet roe. This research could offer new opportunities for the food industry for fish roe valorization for high nutritional quality oil production.