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Background: Nanoparticles (NPs) are being used extensively owing to their increased surface area, targeted delivery and enhanced retention. NPs have the potential to be used in many disease conditions. Despite widespread use, their toxicity and clinical safety still remain a major concern. Objective: The purpose of this study was to explore the metabolism and toxicological effects of nanotherapeutics. Methods: Comprehensive, time-bound literature search was done covering the period from 2010 till date. The primary focus was on the metabolism of NP including their adsorption, degradation, clearance, and bio-persistence. This review also focuses on updated investigations on NPs with respect to their toxic effects on various in vitro and in vivo experimental models. Results: Nanotechnology is a thriving field of biomedical research and an efficient drug delivery system. Further their applications are under investigation for diagnosis of disease and as medical devices. Conclusion: The toxicity of NPs is a major concern in the application of NPs as therapeutics. Studies addressing metabolism, side-effects and safety of NPs are desirable to gain maximum benefits of nanotherapeutics.

Background AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a precise role as a master regulator of cellular energy homeostasis. AMPK is activated in response to the signalling cues that exhaust cellular ATP levels such as hypoxia, ischaemia, glucose depletion and heat shock. As a central regulator of both lipid and glucose metabolism, AMPK is considered to be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases, including eye disorders. Objective To review all the shreds of evidence concerning the role of the AMPK signalling pathway in the pathogenesis of ocular diseases. Method Scientific data search and review of available information evaluating the influence of AMPK signalling on ocular diseases. Results Review highlights the significance of AMPK signalling in the aetiopathogenesis of ocular diseases, including cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, retinoblastoma, age-related macular degeneration, corneal diseases, etc. The review also provides the information on the AMPK-associated pathways with reference to ocular disease, which includes mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy and regulation of inflammatory response. Conclusion The study concludes the role of AMPK in ocular diseases. There is growing interest in the therapeutic utilization of the AMPK pathway for ocular disease treatment. Furthermore, inhibition of AMPK signalling might represent more pertinent strategy than AMPK activation for ocular disease treatment. Such information will guide the development of more effective AMPK modulators for ocular diseases. [Formula: see text]

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