South American Zika virus (ZIKV) recently emerged as a novel human pathogen, linked with neurological disorders. However, comparative ZIKV infectivity studies in New World primates are lacking. Two members of the Callitrichidae family, common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus), were highly susceptible to sub-cutaneous challenge with the Puerto Rico-origin ZIKVPRVABC59 strain. Both exhibited rapid, high, acute viraemia with early neuroinvasion (3 days) in peripheral and central nervous tissue. ZIKV RNA levels in blood and tissues were significantly higher in New World hosts compared to Old World species (Macaca mulatta, Macaca fascicularis). Tamarins and rhesus macaques exhibited loss of zonal occludens-1 (ZO-1) staining, indicative of a compromised blood-brain barrier 3 days post-ZIKV exposure. Early, widespread dissemination across multiple anatomical sites distant to the inoculation site preceded extensive ZIKV persistence after 100 days in New and Old World lineages, especially lymphoid, neurological and reproductive sites. Prolonged persistence in brain tissue has implications for otherwise resolved human ZIKV infection. High susceptibility of distinct New World species underscores possible establishment of ZIKV sylvatic cycles in primates indigenous to ZIKV endemic regions. Tamarins and marmosets represent viable New World models for ZIKV pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention studies, including vaccines, with contemporary strains.

Background and AimsImmunoregulatory checkpoint receptors (CR) contribute to the profound immunoparesis observed in alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) and in vitro neutralization of inhibitory-CRs TIM3/PD1 on anti-bacterial T-cells can rescue innate and adaptive anti-bacterial immunity. Recently described soluble-CR forms can modulate immunity in inflammatory conditions, but the contributions of soluble-TIM3 and soluble-PD1 and other soluble-CRs to immune derangements in ALD remain unclear.MethodsIn Alcoholic Hepatitis (AH; n = 19), alcohol-related cirrhosis (ARC; n = 53) and healthy control (HC; n = 27) subjects, we measured by Luminex technology (i) plasma levels of 16 soluble-CRs, 12 pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines and markers of gut bacterial translocation; (ii) pre-hepatic, post-hepatic and non-hepatic soluble-CR plasma levels in ARC patients undergoing TIPS; (iii) soluble-CRs production from ethanol-treated immunocompetent precision cut human liver slices (PCLS); (iv) whole-blood soluble-CR expression upon bacterial challenge. By FACS, we assessed the relationship between soluble-TIM3 and membrane-TIM3 and rescue of immunity in bacterial-challenged PBMCs.ResultsSoluble-TIM3 was the dominant plasma soluble-CR in ALD vs. HC (p = 0.00002) and multivariate analysis identified it as the main driver of differences between groups. Soluble-CRs were strongly correlated with pro-inflammatory cytokines, gut bacterial translocation markers and clinical indices of disease severity. Ethanol exposure or bacterial challenge did not induce soluble-TIM3 production from PCLS nor from whole-blood. Bacterial challenge prompted membrane-TIM3 hyperexpression on PBMCs from ALD patient’s vs. HC (p < 0.002) and was inversely correlated with plasma soluble-TIM3 levels in matched patients. TIM3 ligands soluble-Galectin-9 and soluble-CEACAM1 were elevated in ALD plasma (AH > ARC; p < 0.002). In vitro neutralization of Galectin-9 and soluble-CEACAM1 improved the defective anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory cytokine production from E. coli-challenged PBMCs in ALD patients.ConclusionsAlcohol-related liver disease patients exhibit supra-physiological plasma levels of soluble-TIM3, particularly those with greater disease severity. This is also associated with increased levels of soluble TIM3-ligands and membrane-TIM3 expression on immune cells. Soluble-TIM3 can block the TIM3-ligand synapse and improve anti-bacterial immunity; however, the increased levels of soluble TIM3-binding ligands in patients with ALD negate any potential immunostimulatory effects. We believe that anti-TIM3 neutralizing antibodies currently in Phase I clinical trials or soluble-TIM3 should be investigated further for their ability to enhance anti-bacterial immunity. These agents could potentially represent an innovative immune-based supportive approach to rescue anti-bacterial defenses in ALD patients.

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