Highlights d IL-35 subunits Ebi3 and p35 are secreted as components of CD81 + EVs d IL-35 + EVs secreted by a small number of Treg cells target a higher number of lymphocytes d EV coating of bystander lymphocytes with IL-35 promotes infectious tolerance

The scope of the article is to review the different approaches that have been used for HIV vaccines. The review is based on articles retrieved by PubMed and clinical trials from 1990 up to date. The article discusses virus complexity, protective and non-protective immune responses against the virus, and the most important approaches for HIV vaccine development.

Exosomes are a potent means for intercellular communication. However, exosomes have received intensive research focus in immunobiology only relatively recently.Because they transport proteins, lipids and genetic material between cells, they are especially suited to amplify their parental cell's message and overcome the physical constraints of cell-to-cell contact, that is exosome release gives cells the ability to alter distant, non-contiguous cells. As progress is made in this field, it has become increasingly obvious that exosomes are involved in most biological processes. In the immune system, exosomes are fundamental tools used by every immune cell type to fulfil its function and promote inflammation or tolerance. In this review, we first summarize key aspects of immune cell-specific exosomes and their functions. Then, we describe how exosomes have been shown to be indispensable orchestrators of the immune response in two immunological scenarios, namely transplant rejection or tolerance, and tumour evasion or initiation of anti-tumour immune responses.

In the recent years, a large number of potential biomarkers for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) have been described. One of the important biomarkers is Surfactant Protein D (SPD) since serum SPD levels have been associated with lung function or health status in patients with severe COPD. Several interesting evidences of the protein and gene polymorphisms have been described. The present review highlights the current literature, recent patents and, future prospects of this important collection.

The need for the improvement of vaccine potency as well as reducing toxicity in healthy recipients has motivated studies of the formulation of vaccines regarding control of how, when, and where antigens and adjuvants encounter immune cells and other cells/tissues following vaccine administration. Immunostimulatory complexes (ISCOMs) and ISCOMATRIXTM adjuvants are versatile and flexible systems with various phospholipids and saponin components. They are being used in novel vaccines for either infectious diseases or cancer. This article presents a brief review of the latest developments using such adjuvants and possible new applications.