IntroductionThe two isoforms of estrogen receptor (ER) alpha and beta play opposite roles in regulating proliferation and differentiation of breast cancers, with ER-alpha mediating mitogenic effects and ER-beta acting as a tumor suppressor. Emerging data have reported that androgen receptor (AR) activation inhibits ER-positive breast cancer progression mainly by antagonizing ER-alpha signaling. However, to date no studies have specifically evaluated a potential involvement of ER-beta in the inhibitory effects of androgens.MethodsER-beta expression was examined in human breast cancer cell lines using real-time PCR, Western blotting and small interfering RNA (siRNA) assays. Mutagenesis studies, electromobility shift assay (EMSA) and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis were performed to assess the effects of mibolerone/AR on ER-beta promoter activity and binding.ResultsIn this study, we demonstrate that mibolerone, a synthetic androgen ligand, up-regulates ER-beta mRNA and protein levels in ER-positive breast cancer cells. Transient transfection experiments, using a vector containing the human ER-beta promoter region, show that mibolerone increases basal ER-beta promoter activity. Site-directed mutagenesis and deletion analysis reveal that an androgen response element (ARE), TGTTCT motif located at positions −383 and −377, is critical for mibolerone-induced ER-beta up-regulation in breast cancer cells. This occurs through an increased recruitment of AR to the ARE site within the ER-beta promoter region, along with an enhanced occupancy of RNA polymerase II. Finally, silencing of ER-beta gene expression by RNA interference is able to partially reverse the effects of mibolerone on cell proliferation, p21 and cyclin D1 expression.ConclusionsCollectively, these data provide evidence for a novel mechanism by which activated AR, through an up-regulation of ER-beta gene expression, inhibits breast cancer cell growth.

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Human estrogen receptors (ERs) alpha and beta are crucially involved in the regulation of mammary growth and development. Normal breast tissues display a prevalently expression of ER beta than ER alpha, which drastically increases during breast tumorogenesis. So, it is reasonable to assume how a dysregulation of the two estrogen receptor subtypes may induce breast cancer development. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the opposite role played by the two estrogen receptors on tumor cell growth remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we have demonstrated that ER beta overexpression in breast cancer cells decreases cell proliferation and down-regulates ER alpha mRNA and protein content along with a concomitant repression of estrogen-regulated genes. Transient transfection experiments, using a vector containing the human ER alpha promoter region, showed that elevated levels of the ER beta down-regulated basal ER alpha promoter activity. Furthermore, side-directed mutagenesis and deletion analysis have revealed that the proximal GC-rich motifs at −223 and −214 is crucial for the ER beta-induced ER alpha down-regulation in breast cancer cells. This occurred through ER beta-Sp1 protein-protein interaction within the ER alpha promoter region and the recruitment of a corepressor complex containing NCoR/SMRT (nuclear receptor corepressor/silencing mediator of retinoic acid and thyroid hormone receptor), accompanied by hypoacetylation of histone H4 and displacement of RNA polymerase II. Silencing of NCoR gene expression by RNA interference reversed the down-regulatory effect of ER beta on ER alpha gene expression and cell proliferation. Our results provide evidence for a novel mechanism by which overexpression of ER beta through NCoR is able to down regulate ER alpha gene expression, thus inhibiting ER alpha’s driving role on breast cancer cell growth.

Pancreatic cancer is an aggressive cancer of the digestive system, which is becoming a serious health problem worldwide. Overall survival for patients with pancreatic cancer is poor, mainly due to a lack of biomarkers to enable early diagnosis and a lack of prognostic markers that can inform decision-making, facilitating personalized treatment and an optimal clinical outcome. ncRNAs play an important role in pancreatic carcinogenesis. Here we review the literature on the role of ncRNAs as biomarkers in pancreatic cancer. We focus on the significance of ncRNAs as markers for early diagnosis, as prognostic biomarkers able to inform clinical management and as targets for novel therapeutics for patients with pancreatic cancer.

Introduction ERα function is crucial for development of normal mammary gland as well as in the process of progression of breast cancer cells. Signals that target receptor levels contribute to regulate estrogens effects in the cells. An intricate cross-regulation has been documented between ERα and TGF-β down-stream molecules: SMAD2, SMAD3 and SMAD4, that can bind ERα and regulate their signaling. Thus, identification of natural anticancer drugs able to influence the latter effect might provide alternative choices for breast cancer treatment. Taking into account our previous published data we wanted to study the effect of 5-Methoxypsoralen (bergapten) on ERα and on TGF-β pathway. Methods RT-PCR and W.B. were performed to evaluate the effect of bergapten on the ERα expression protein and the TGF-β –down stream signaling molecules. siRNA for Smad4 and TGF- β RII was also done to evaluate their involvement on the bergapten-induced responses. Results We reported that bergapten, a coumarin containing compound, effectively depletes ERα in MCF-7 breast cancer sensitive cells and in tamoxifen-resistant clone. The decrease of ERα protein after bergapten treatment results from the ubiquitine-proteasome pathway as demonstrated by the use of MG-132. IP experiments with ER antibody, demonstrated that the protein has physical interaction with SMAD4 and poly-ubiquitine and the amount of ubiquitinated receptor, linked to SMAD4, is greater under bergapten. The crucial role played by SMAD4, in this process, emerges from the observation that in breast cancer cells, silencing of SMAD4, resulted in increased expression of endogenous ERα in both control and bergapten-treated cells, compared to wild type cells. The same results were confirmed in siRNA TGF-β RII cells. Conclusions The results suggest a novel negative regulation of ERα by TGF-β/SMAD4 in breast cancer cells and indicate that the SMAD4 protein is involved in the degradation of ERα induced by bergapten. We propose that bergapten may efficiently act as a natural antitumoral agent, able to deplete ERα from breast cancer tamoxifen-sensitive and resistant cells, thereby retraining the effect of membrane signals targeting ERα and in such way its mitogenic potentiality.