Abstract.In this article a number of elements of a general model of quality assessment in higher education are presented. On the one hand these elements are put in a historical context of quality assessment in Medieval universities and, on the other hand, deduced from the recent experiences with quality assessment in both North-American and Western European countries. With respect to the historical context a distinction is made between the intrinsic and the extrinsic values of higher education. Two types of quality assessment related to these values are also distinguished. Concerning the recent experiences with quality assessment systems, the practices in the U.S.A., Canada, France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom are explored. In the final section the general mode of quality assessment is discussed in the context of the distinction between the intrinsic and the extrinsic values of higher education. The historical roots of quality assessment in higher educationFrom the early days of higher education on, the assessment of the quality of its processes and products has been an important focus of attention for higher education institutions. In this historical attention for quality a certain tension is found which we nowadays still experience and which sometimes appears to be the source of heated debates.Already in Medieval higher education a distinction can be made between two extreme models of quality assessment. Neither of these two models is of course found in the actual history of European higher education. The models rather point to two crucial dimensions of quality assessment in higher education. Referring to their historical backgrounds, we will call one model the French model of vesting control in an extemal authority (Cobban 1988, p. 124). The other model we will call the English model of a self-governing community of fellows.The French model can be illustrated by the dramatic struggle for autonomy by the University of Paris in the early thirteenth century. It was the chancellor of the cathedral of Nrtre Dame, acting as the delegate of the bishop of Pads, who represented the then dominating episcopal outlook that the universities should be seen as 'ecclesiastical colonies.' The universities were viewed as higher forms of education that were, however, to be integrated in the ecclesiastical structure and that were to remain under episcopal authority. The chancellor of the cathedral of N6tre Dame was an external official set above the masters' guild. As such he claimed the authority to grant or to withhold the teaching license and he claimed the right to decide about the content of studies. The masters fought the chancellor's authority. And after a long and bitter conflict, Pope Gregory IX in his bull called

After more than two decades of external quality assurance, there is an increasing interest in questions concerning the impact and effects of this activity. Following an external evaluation of NOKUT -the Norwegian quality assurance agency, this article studies the impact of external quality assurance in detail by analysing quantitative and qualitative feedback from those exposed to evaluations conducted by this agency. The study provides information on the impact of various methods used, how impact is perceived by students, staff and management within universities and colleges, and finally in what areas impact may be identified. A major finding is that impacts are perceived as quite similar regardless of the evaluation method.

Higher education systems in Europe are currently undergoing deep reforms. These reforms are triggered by national developments, as well as by the aim to evolve towards comparable systems and ensure the quality of the higher education systems in Europe (Bologna Process). This study was initiated by the education trade unions' goal to widen the scope of the debate on accreditation and evaluation activities in higher education in Europe from a comparative perspective. In order to provide the factual base for this discussion, we were asked to carry out a comparative study of 'accreditation in the framework of evaluation activities' in the European higher education area. Accreditation is the focus of our study, but accreditation is a policy instrument made up of two elements: evaluation and approval. Therefore, we felt it necessary to analyse these two elements in their own right. Hence, the aims of the study are to:1. Provide an updated picture of the current situation with regard to(1) accreditation schemes, (2) other approval schemes (outside accreditation) and (3) evaluation schemes.2. Analyse the underlying principles of the accreditation scheme(s) and how they relate to other approval and evaluation schemes ('system logic' or 'system dynamic').3. Point out and analyse current reforms of the accreditation scheme(s) (with a view to other approval and evaluation schemes as well as supra-national developments, e.g. the Bologna process and other influences).Our study covers all countries involved in the Bologna process. For practical rea sons, we have had to limit ourselves to a sub-set consisting of all fifteen EU member states (situation as of 2003, minus Luxembourg which has a minute higher education sector), a main Western European country which is not part of the EU (Norway) and a sample of Central and Eastern European countries which entered the EU in 2004 (the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland), bringing the total to 20 countries. With regard to Central and Eastern Europe, we have reason to believe that the situation depicted below is representative of not just the countries sampled, but 1

Higher education systems in Europe are currently undergoing deep reforms. These reforms are triggered by national developments, as well as by the aim to evolve towards comparable systems and ensure the quality of the higher education systems in Europe (Bologna Process). This study was initiated by the education trade unions' goal to widen the scope of the debate on accreditation and evaluation activities in higher education in Europe from a comparative perspective. In order to provide the factual base for this discussion, we were asked to carry out a comparative study of 'accreditation in the framework of evaluation activities' in the European higher education area. Accreditation is the focus of our study, but accreditation is a policy instrument made up of two elements: evaluation and approval. Therefore, we felt it necessary to analyse these two elements in their own right. Hence, the aims of the study are to:1. Provide an updated picture of the current situation with regard to(1) accreditation schemes, (2) other approval schemes (outside accreditation) and (3) evaluation schemes.2. Analyse the underlying principles of the accreditation scheme(s) and how they relate to other approval and evaluation schemes ('system logic' or 'system dynamic').3. Point out and analyse current reforms of the accreditation scheme(s) (with a view to other approval and evaluation schemes as well as supra-national developments, e.g. the Bologna process and other influences).Our study covers all countries involved in the Bologna process. For practical rea sons, we have had to limit ourselves to a sub-set consisting of all fifteen EU member states (situation as of 2003, minus Luxembourg which has a minute higher education sector), a main Western European country which is not part of the EU (Norway) and a sample of Central and Eastern European countries which entered the EU in 2004 (the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland), bringing the total to 20 countries. With regard to Central and Eastern Europe, we have reason to believe that the situation depicted below is representative of not just the countries sampled, but 1

This article focuses on responses of higher education institutions to governmental policy. We investigate the influence of organisational characteristics on the implementation of quality management in Hungarian higher education institutions. Our theoretical framework is based on organisational theories (resource dependency and neoinstitutionalism), Allison's models on organisational decision-making processes, and also addresses some of the more specific characteristics of higher education institutions. Our empirical investigation shows that organisational characteristics matter in policy implementation of quality management in Hungarian higher education. Certain organisational variables, viz. leaders' commitment to the implementation process, the involvement of external consultants, institutional reputation, and bureaucratic and political decisionmaking processes have strong effects on the implementation of quality management. Characteristics particular to higher education institutions were much less influential.