Following second-order election (SOE) theory, European elections entail accountability problems if voter mandates address national rather than European concerns. To investigate this issue, we conducted 107 semi-structured interviews with voters on Election Day in France, Germany and Poland and develop a typology of voter mandates. We argue that the quality of accountability links between electorate and EP varies with mandate types. While some mandates reflect the concerns of SOE theory expects, most establish meaningful accountability links, with many testifying to novel forms of EU politicization.

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