In the United States, the difference in academic achievement between higher- and lower-income students (i.e., the income achievement gap) is substantial and growing. Here, we investigated neuroanatomical correlates of this gap in adolescents (n = 58) in whom academic achievement was measured by statewide standardized testing. Cortical gray matter volume was significantly greater in students from higher-income backgrounds (n = 35) compared to students from lower-income backgrounds (n = 23), but cortical white matter volume and total cortical surface area did not differ between groups. Cortical thickness in all lobes of the brain was greater in students from higher-income than lower-income backgrounds. Thicker cortex, particularly in temporal and occipital lobes, was associated with better test performance. These results represent the first evidence that cortical thickness differs across broad swaths of the brain between higher- and lower-income students, and that cortical thickness is related to academic achievement test scores.

In this article we argue that social-psychological research on implicit racial associations—relatively unconscious associations based on race—is a fruitful area to explore for a greater understanding of how racial bias affects children in schools. We highlight the key insights of research on implicit racial associations and their implications for education. Further, we identify areas for research on implicit racial associations in education, calling for collaboration between scholars of racial inequality in education and scholars of implicit racial associations. This research is likely to provide a productive new perspective for understanding why and when teachers and other school personnel engage in behaviors that reproduce racial inequality, often in spite of best intentions and commitments to racial equity.

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for their invaluable support with this research.

Four studies present the first broad investigation into identity threats experienced in everyday life. Capturing more than 17,000 instances of identity threat experienced by more than 1,500 participants, we demonstrate that a lack of felt belonging and exclusion are distinct aspects of identity threats. Experiences of reduced belonging most strongly relate to feelings of inauthenticity, whereas experiences of exclusion most strongly relate to negative affect (sadness and anger). Furthermore, experiences with identity threats were related to loneliness, lower life satisfaction, and worse self-reported physical health (with reduced belonging and exclusion predicting distinct measures of well-being), and both aspects predict lower workplace satisfaction, identification and commitment when experienced in professional settings. By distinguishing feelings of reduced belonging from exclusion, we provide unique insights into affective and cognitive outcomes of identity threats experienced in everyday life across diverse marginalized identities.