Several studies have shown that sex determination methods based on measurements of the skeleton are population specific. Metric traits of the long bones of the arm have been reported as reliable indicators of sex. This study was designed to determine whether the three long bones of the arm can be used for sex determination on a skeletal population from Greece. The material used consists of the arm bones of 204 adult individuals (111 males and 93 females) coming from the Modern Human Skeletal Collection of the University of Athens. The age range is 19-96 years for males and 20-99 years for females. The maximum lengths and epiphyseal widths were measured in the long bones of the arm (humerus, radius, and ulna). The discriminant analysis of the metrical data of each long bone gave very high discrimination accuracies. The rate of correct sex discrimination based on different long bones ranges from 90.30% (ulna) to 95.70% (humerus). In addition, intra- and inter-observer error tests were performed. These indicated that replication of measurements was satisfactory for the same observer over time and between observers. The results of this study show that metric characteristics of the arm bones can be used for the determination of sex in skeletal remains from Greece and that bone dimensions are population specific.

Objectives: The presence of a gendered subdivision of labor has been bioarchaeologically investigated in various prehistoric and historical contexts. Little is known, however, about the type of differences in daily activities characterizing men and women among the Celtic communities of Italy. The focus of the present study is the analysis of differences in patterns of entheseal changes (ECs) and long bone shape and robusticity between sexes among the Cenomani Gauls of Seminario Vescovile (SV-Verona, Italy, third-first century BC). Materials and Methods: The sample includes 56 adult individuals (22 females and 34 males). Presence of ECs on nine bilateral postcranial attachment sites, and values of humeral and femoral shape and robusticity indices based on external measurements were compared between sexes by means of generalized linear models and Mann-Whitney tests. Results: Results show a lack of difference between sexes in long bone shape and robusticity, and a higher incidence of upper and, especially, lower limb ECs in males. Discussion: These results suggest the presence of sex-specific activities at SV mostly related to farming and differently influencing the considered variables. Also, this study suggests the relevance of a series of nonbiomechanical factors (developmental, hormonal, genetic, and methodological) when attempting biocultural reconstructions from osteoarchaeological samples. K E Y W O R D S celts, entheses, Iron Age, long bone indices, physical activity 1 | INTRODUCTION 1.1 | Theoretical and archaeological background A large number of bioarchaeological studies have investigated the differences in daily physical activities between sexes and gendered division of labor among past human societies (e.g., al-Oumaoui,

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30Objectives: Gender differentiation can influence the diet, physical activity, and health of human 31 populations. Multifaceted approaches are therefore necessary when exploring the biological 32 consequences of gender-related social norms in the past. Here, we explore the links between diet, 33 physiological stress, physical activity and gender differentiation in the Medieval Islamic 34 population of La Torrecilla (Granada, Spain, 13 th -15 th century AD), by analyzing stable isotope 35 patterns, stature, and long bone diaphyseal measurements. 36 Materials and Methods: The sample includes 96 individuals (48 females, 48 males) classified 37 as young and middle adults (20-34 and 35-50 years of age respectively). Diet was reconstructed 38 through the analysis of δ 13 C and δ 15 N. Stature, humeral and femoral diaphyseal shape and 39 product of diaphyseal diameters served as proxies of physiological stress and physical activity.40 Results: Isotopic ratios suggest a substantial dietary contribution of C 4 plants (e.g., sorghum, 41 millet), a variable access to animal proteins, and no differences between the sexes. Sexual 42 dimorphism in stature derives from a markedly low female stature. Long bone diaphyseal 43 properties suggest that men performed various physically stressful activities, whereas women 44 were involved in less physically demanding activities (possibly related to household work).45 Discussion: Gender differentiation in La Torrecilla was expressed by a possibly differential 46 parental investment in male versus female offspring and by culturally sanctioned gender 47 differences in the performance of physical tasks. Diet was qualitatively homogenous between the 48 sexes, although we cannot rule out quantitative differences. Our results shed new light on the 49 effects of gender-related social norms on human development and lifestyle.