C4 plants (e.g. maize, millet), part of our current diet, are only endemic of reduced areas in South-Europe due to their need of warm climates. Since the first vestiges of agriculture in Europe remains of C4 plants were recorded but their overall proportion in the human diet remains unknown. Therefore, isotopic (δ13C and δ15N) composition of bone collagen from the skeletal remains (human and animals) of a Celtic population, Cenomani Gauls, from Verona (3rd to 1st century BC) in the NE Italy provide a new perspective on this matter. The δ13C collagen values of 90 human skeletal individuals range between −20.2‰ and −9.7‰ (V-PDB) with a mean value of −15.3‰. As present day C4 plants have δ13C values around −11‰, which is equivalent to −9.5‰ for samples of preindustrial age, the less negative δ13C values in these individuals indicate a diet dominated by C4 plants. This palaeodietary study indicates that some European populations predominantly consumed cultivated C4 plants 2100 year B.P. This is supported by the paleobotanical records and ancient Roman sources (e.g. Pliny the Elder), which indicate that millet was a staple food in South-Europe.

Little is known about the types of social organization characterizing the pre-Roman Celtic populations of Italy. Here, we explore the funerary variability characterizing the late Iron Age site of Seminario Vescovile (SV: Verona, Italy, 3 rd -1 st c. BC), and test its possible correlation to diet and relative exposure to developmental stressors. Patterns on funerary treatment (N = 125), δ 13 C and δ 15 N (N = 90), and linear enamel hypoplasia (N = 47) from SV are compared, and their possible association with sex and age-at-death further discussed. Results point to the presence at SV of variable funerary customs while at the same time demonstrating a rather homogenous diet and exposure to developmental stressors: funerary treatment is mainly correlated to age-at-death but do not appear to be associated to either isotopic patterns or hypoplasia frequencies. Accordingly, even if some weak social differentiation may have characterized the individuals buried at SV, this was not reflected in markedly differing living conditions. Our study is the first to attempt an exploration of the links between age, sex, funerary variability, and diet in a pre-Roman Celtic community from Italy. While highlighting the potential of a multifaceted approach in bioarcheology, it also points to a series of analytical and theoretical issues relevant when trying to disentangle the cultural and biological dimensions of social differentiation in the past.

Objectives: The presence of a gendered subdivision of labor has been bioarchaeologically investigated in various prehistoric and historical contexts. Little is known, however, about the type of differences in daily activities characterizing men and women among the Celtic communities of Italy. The focus of the present study is the analysis of differences in patterns of entheseal changes (ECs) and long bone shape and robusticity between sexes among the Cenomani Gauls of Seminario Vescovile (SV-Verona, Italy, third-first century BC). Materials and Methods: The sample includes 56 adult individuals (22 females and 34 males). Presence of ECs on nine bilateral postcranial attachment sites, and values of humeral and femoral shape and robusticity indices based on external measurements were compared between sexes by means of generalized linear models and Mann-Whitney tests. Results: Results show a lack of difference between sexes in long bone shape and robusticity, and a higher incidence of upper and, especially, lower limb ECs in males. Discussion: These results suggest the presence of sex-specific activities at SV mostly related to farming and differently influencing the considered variables. Also, this study suggests the relevance of a series of nonbiomechanical factors (developmental, hormonal, genetic, and methodological) when attempting biocultural reconstructions from osteoarchaeological samples. K E Y W O R D S celts, entheses, Iron Age, long bone indices, physical activity 1 | INTRODUCTION 1.1 | Theoretical and archaeological background A large number of bioarchaeological studies have investigated the differences in daily physical activities between sexes and gendered division of labor among past human societies (e.g., al-Oumaoui,

Study of the human remains of King Pedro I of Castile (1334-1369), his wife Queen Maria of Padilla (c. 1334-1361), and three other members of his family offered the possibility to investigate the diet of an elite in the medieval Iberian Peninsula by analyzing δ 15 N and δ 13 C values in collagen samples of their bones. Two medieval archaeological samples were selected for comparative purposes: a Christian sample (n=5) from Palacios de la Sierra (Burgos), and a Muslim sample (n=5) from La Torrecilla (Granada). Results obtained were compared with published data on other medieval populations of the Iberian Peninsula with the aim of improving knowledge on the diet of medieval populations, especially elite groups. Differences in the consumption of C3 and C4 plants were observed between Christians and Muslims, as previously reported. δ 15 N values indicated social class differences. The diet of the royal family was characterized by mainly C3 plants and an extremely high animal protein intake characteristic of carnivores. These results are consistent with historical data on the life circumstances of this family.