The physical and environmental factors leading to domestic falls in the elderly have been assessed in many published studies; only one includes some assessment of environmental factors causing the elderly to fall outside their homes (Consumer Safety Unit, 1986). Many patients of all ages attend Accident and Emergency Departments with injuries sustained through such falls. This prospective study was undertaken to determine the frequency with which uneven surface or inadequate lighting was thought by the patients to have contributed to falls in public places, and to survey injuries sustained. Two hundred and thirty seven consecutive patients attending the Accident and Emergency Department were entered into the study, information being obtained by patient questionnaire and from A&E records. An average of 7 patients were entered into the study each day. The ratio of women to men was 1·7 :1. Patients of both sexes were most commonly aged between 15 and 34 years, with a second peak in women over 55 years. Two thirds of falls occurred on pavements. Uneven surface underfoot or inadequate street lighting was implicated in over half the falls. Injuries were mostly sprains and bruises, but facial lacerations and upper limb fractures were also common. Sixty eight per cent of fractures occurred in women over 55 years of age. Medical follow up was required in 40% of all cases. Uneven paving and inadequate lighting in public places are potentially avoidable factors in causing falls which lead to appreciable morbidity in large numbers of young and elderly patients attending A&E Departments.

This paper argues that graffiti can provide a form of socio-political commentary at the local level, and is a valuable, yet often overlooked, resource for scholars and policy makers in conflict-affected societies. Graffiti, in its many forms, can provide rich insight into societies, cultures, social issues, trends, political discourse, and spatial and territorial identities and claims. Thus, this, paper suggest that graffiti is a valuable source of knowledge in societies undergoing social and political transformation to hear the voices of those often left out from the official discourses. Despite advances in the field of arts and International Relations and the focus on the local and the everyday, peace and conflict scholarship and policy still lack systematic engagement with artsbased contributions and how to read them. The paper attempts to address this gap by outlining four core dimensions to consider when attempting to interpret and decode graffiti: the spatial, temporal, political economy, and representative dimensions. This can also be viewed as an inquiry into the where, when, who and what. These four elements make up an analytical guide and enable scholars to better understand graffiti, and its political meaning and messaging.

Using the case study of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) and the 2017 independence referendum, this article examines the nexus between independence referendums, nationalism and political power. It argues that the referendum in the KRI was held due to internal political competition and growing rebellion from the population against the poor economic performance and political situation rather than because the time was right for independence referendum. Focusing on the poor political and financial dynamics, as well as the lack of regional and international support for Kurdish independence, the article argues that independence was not a realistic goal and was rather used as a distraction amid internal turmoil. The example of the referendum in the KRI poses questions about the democratic credibility of such referenda, as the population were voting for an unachievable result and the referendum itself became a tool of internal political competition.

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