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Developing ‘climate smart forestry’ (CSF) indicators in mountain forest regions requires collection and evaluation of local data and their attributes. Genetic resources are listed among the core indicators for ‘forest biological diversity’. This study is a report on the evaluation of the standing genetic diversity within and across 12 pure beech stands (<i>Fagus sylvatica</i> L.) established within the CLIMO project, using nuclear microsatellite markers. The sampling sites were set along the species’ distribution range, including the Balkan region and extending towards the Iberian Peninsula. Cores or leaves from 20-23, old, mature trees per plot were sampled for DNA analysis. Genetic diversity indices were high across the range (H_E = 0.74 - 0.81) with the highest in the Bosnian Mountains. Genetic divergence increased significantly with the geographical distance (Mantel test: r=0.81. p<0.001). Most of the stands exhibited an excess of heterozygotes, with the highest value at the Hungarian site (H_O/H_E = 1.177), where beech persists close to the eastern xeric limit of the species’ distribution. STRUCTURE revealed within–region differentiation in the Balkan Peninsula, where Bulgarian stand was the most outstanding. The genetic parameters of each stand could be assessed as a resource for CSF indicators interpreted especially at the local level.

Although <em>Hedera </em><em>helix </em>is the only native ivy distributed in Central Europe, other ivy species are cultivated in this region and have horticultural importance, including <em>H. hibernica</em>, <em>H. colchica</em>, and <em>H. azorica</em>. On the basis of morphological, cytological, and phenological studies, a newly identified diploid species of ivy, <em>H. crebrescens </em>Bényei-Himmer &amp; Höhn, was recently described from Hungary. Due to its high reproductive capacity and vigorous growth, this species can be considered a potentially invasive plant that could readily supplant <em>H. helix </em>in its native habitats. To characterize the molecular taxonomic status of <em>H. crebrescens</em>, we conducted a molecular genetic analysis based on five chloroplast and one nuclear DNA regions. Our phylogenetic reconstruction supported the monophyly of <em>Hedera</em>, with a tree topology similar to that previously obtained based on phylogenetic cpDNA analyses. Mediterranean species of ivy were well separated from the remainder of the European species, as well as from Asian species. <em>Hedera </em><em>crebrescens </em>represented a single independent haplotype within the Asian–European cluster, whereas <em>H. helix </em>proved to be polyphyletic. The detected species-specific haplotype and invariability among studied specimens obtained from different geographical locations, provide support for the taxonomical autonomy of <em>H. crebrescens</em>.

Variation in genetic diversity across species ranges has long been recognized as highly informative for assessing populations resilience and adaptive potential. The spatial distribution of genetic diversity, referred to as fine-scale spatial genetic structure (FSGS), also carries information about recent demographic changes, yet it has rarely been connected to range scale processes. We studied eight silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) population pairs (sites), growing at high and low elevations, representative of the main genetic lineages of the species. A total of 1368 adult trees and 540 seedlings were genotyped using 137 and 116 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), respectively. Sites revealed a clear east-west isolation-by-distance pattern consistent with the post-glacial colonization history of the species. Genetic differentiation among sites (FCT=0.148) was an order of magnitude greater than between elevations within sites (FSC=0.031), nevertheless high elevation populations consistently exhibited a stronger FSGS. Structural equation modeling revealed that elevation and, to a lesser extent, post-glacial colonization history, but not climatic and habitat variables, were the best predictors of FGSG across populations. These results may suggest that high elevation habitats have been colonized more recently across the species range. Additionally, paternity analysis revealed a high reproductive skew among adults and a stronger FSGS in seedlings than in adults, suggesting that FSGS may conserve the signature of demographic changes for several generations. Our results emphasize that spatial patterns of genetic diversity within populations provide complementary information about demographic history and could be used for defining conservation priorities.

We analysed genetic variation of the small Scots pine population from the forested area of Northern Kiskunság in comparison with other pine populations from the Carpathians and the Pannonian Basin that we studied earlier by microsatellite markers (SSR). Our results showed that genetic indices based on the five nuclear SSRs are similar to the values detected in other Hungarian pine populations. Based on STRUCTURE analysis, as well as PCoA the population from Northern Kiskunság fits into the Western Carpathians-Pannonian genetic lineage and we did not detect alien genoptypes as well as population specific genotypes. Although, the natural presence of Scots pine cannot be traced back to LGM/early Holocene, the habitat characteristics like the nutrient-poor sandy substrate and the extreme ecological conditions of the site may favor the natural presence of the species in the area. The local forest community including broadleaf species with the dominance of pedunculate oak mixed with Scots pine provide an aspect of a continental woodland community able to preserve valuable species and so an elevated biodiversity. Moreover, gene stock most probably adapted to the local environment might represent a high natural and economic value.