A unique, species-rich and endangered lichen biota can be found on European coastal and inland sand dunes. However, it is increasingly affected by natural succession as well as by anthropogenic disturbances. We studied lichen diversity on the grey dunes and dune heaths of coastal and inland regions of Estonia. A total of 28 study plots were investigated; in each 0.1 ha study plot general environmental variables and anthropogenic disturbances were described and all epigeic lichen species were identified. We found 66 lichenized fungus (lichen) species, including several rare and ten red-listed lichens. Multivariate analysis (DCA, CCA) was performed to examine gradients in species composition and to relate variation in species data to environmental factors. In addition, we used redundancy analysis (RDA) to relate variation in species' trait composition to environmental factors. Species composition on grey dunes differed significantly from that on dune heaths. The characteristic species for grey dunes are, besides several Cladonia species, foliose lichens, e.g. Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia sulcata and Peltigera spp. Also species' traits composition was different for either habitat, indicating that sorediate lichens, foliose lichens, lichens with cyanobacterium as the main photobiont, and sparsely branched Cladonia species dominate on grey dunes, while esorediate, green-algal, crustose and richly branched fruticose lichens are common on dune heaths. Soil pH was the most essential environmental variable for determining both species composition and species' traits composition. The composition of lichen species was also significantly influenced by forest closeness, soil Mg content and cover of bare sand; the effect of ground disturbances was low compared to the effect of these environmental factors. To protect and conserve the species-rich lichen biota, it is necessary to protect the dune habitats from building activity, to avoid overtrampling in recreation areas and to regularly remove shrubs and trees.

Ecosystem biomass, soil conditions and the diversity of different taxa are often interrelated. These relationships could originate from biogeographic affinity (varying species pools) or from direct ecological effects within local communities. Disentangling regional and local causes is challenging as the former might mask the latter in natural ecosystems with varying habitat conditions. However, when the species pool contribution is considered in statistics, local ecological effects might be detected. In this study we disentangle the indirect effects of the species pool and direct ecological effects on the complex relationships among wood volume, soil conditions and diversities of different plant and fungal groups in 100 old‐growth forest sites (10 × 10 m) at the border of boreal and nemoral zones in northern Europe. We recorded all species for different vegetation groups: woody and herbaceous vascular plants, terricolous and epiphytic bryophytes and lichens. Fungal communities were detected by DNA‐based analyses from soil samples. Above‐ground wood volume was used as a proxy of biomass. We measured soil pH and nutrient content and obtained modelled climate parameters for each site. Species pool effect was considered by dividing sites into boreal and nemoral groups based on community composition. In order to disentangle direct and indirect effects, we applied variation partitioning, and raw and partial correlations. We found many significant positive relationships among studied variables. Many of these relationships were associated to boreal and nemoral species pools, thus indicating that biogeographic affinity of interacting plants and fungi largely defines forest diversity and functioning. At the same time, several relationships were significant also after considering biogeography: woody plant and ectomycorrhizal fungi diversities with wood volume, many plant and fungal groups with each other, or with soil conditions. These direct ecological interactions could be considered in forestry practices to achieve both economic gain and maintenance of biodiversity.

1. During the past century, semi-natural grasslands, once widespread throughout Europe, have largely been converted into intensively managed agricultural areas, abandoned or afforested. These large-scale land-use changes have already resulted in considerable biodiversity loss but can also lead to decline in ecosystem service provision and ecosystem multifunctionality.2. We assessed the impact of afforestation and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands on the supply of ecosystem services in Western Estonia. We compared a wide array of services provided by open grasslands, abandoned grasslands and afforested grasslands. Additionally, we analysed the impact of land-use change and species richness on ecosystem multifunctionality.3. Significant declines in the supply of pollination services, natural pest regulation, forage production, soil quality, wild food and cultural appreciation of landscape were detected as a result of overgrowing or afforestation.4. There was significant positive relationship between species richness and ecosystem multifunctionality, that is, more biodiverse grasslands were able to support more services at higher capacity. 5. Results show that both grassland degradation due to abandonment, as well as grassland afforestation, have significant negative impacts on biodiversity, on the supply of multiple important ecosystem services and on the ecosystem multifunctionality.6. Synthesis and applications. Temperate semi-natural grasslands have high biodiversity and capacity to deliver multiple important ecosystem services simultaneously.

The second assessment of the threat status of Estonian lichens based on IUCN system was performed in 2019. The main basis for choosing the species to be currently assessed was the list of legally protected lichens and the list of species assigned to the Red List Categories RE–DD in 2008. Species that had been assessed as Least Concern (LC) in 2008 were not evaluated. Altogether, threat status of 229 lichen species was assessed, among them 181 were assigned to the threatened categories (CR, EN, VU), while no species were assigned to the LC category. Compared to the previous red list, category was deteriorated for 58% and remained the same for 32% of species. In Estonia, threatened lichens inhabit mainly forests (particularly dry boreal and nemoral deciduous stands), alvar grasslands, sand dunes and various saxicolous habitats. Therefore, the most frequent threat factors were forest cutting and overgrowing of alvars and dunes (main threat factor for 96 and 70 species, respectfully).   Eesti samblike punane nimestik 2019 2019. aastal viidi läbi teistkordne IUCN süsteemil põhinev Eesti samblike ohustatuse hindamine. Hinnati liike, mis on riiklikult kaitstud ning liike, mis 2008. aasta hindamise järgi olid Eestis kas regionaalselt välja surnud, kriitilises seisundis, väljasuremisohus, ohualtid, ohulähedased või puuduliku andmestikuga (kategooriad RE–DD). 2008. a-l kategooriasse Soodsas seisundis (LC) kuulunud liike ei kaasatud uude hindamisse. Kokku hinnati 229 samblikuliigi ohustatust, nendest 181 kuulusid ohustatud kategooriatesse (CR, EN või VU); ükski hinnatud liik ei sobinud kategooriasse LC. Võrreldes eelmise punase nimestikuga tõusis kategooria 58% liikidel ning jäi samaks 32%-l. Ohustatud samblikuliigid asustavad Eestis peamiselt metsi (eriti palu- ja salumetsi), loopealseid, liivikuid ning erinevaid kivi-kasvupindu. Seetõttu on sagedasemad ohutegurid metsaraie ning loodude ja liivikute kinnikasvamine (oluline tegur vastavalt 96 ja 70 liigile).

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