Regular family meals have been shown to reduce adolescents' engagement in various risk behaviors. In this article, we comprehensively examine the literature to review the association between family meals and eight adolescent risk outcomes: alcohol, tobacco, marijuana and other drugs; aggressive and/or violent behaviors; poor school performance; sexual behavior; mental health problems; and disordered eating patterns. The majority of the studies reviewed found associations in the relationship between family meals and adolescents' risk profiles. More specifically, studies reporting significant associations found that adolescents who frequently ate meals with their family and/or parents were less likely to engage in risk behaviors when compared to peers who never or rarely ate meals with their families. Additionally, the influence of family meal frequency on youth risk outcomes appears to be dependent on gender, with family meals being a protective factor for females and males differently, depending on the outcome examined. However, the studies available about family meals and adolescent risk only examined the effect of family meal frequency, and not other components of family meals that contribute to the protective effect, and, thus, hinder the understanding of the mechanisms unique to family meals' protective characteristics. Regardless of these limitations, the studies examined indicate that family meals may be protective and, therefore, have practical implications for parents, clinicians, and organizations looking to reduce adolescent risk behaviors. However, further examination is needed to better understand the mechanisms that contribute to the protective effect afforded by family meal frequency on adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to identify the strongest and most consistent risk and protective factors associated with nonmedical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) in multiple contexts, specifi cally in community-, school-, interpersonal-, and individual-level domains. Method: A literature search was conducted to review studies published from 2006 to 2012 that examined NMUPD among adolescents. Included were original research studies that focused specifi cally on risk and protective factors or review articles that included a section on factors associated with NMUPD. Risk and protective factors were included only if a minimum of two methodologically sound research studies reviewed the variable. Results: A variety of risk and protective factors were associated with adolescent NMUPD. At the community level, evidence suggested that ease of access increased the risk of NMUPD. Parental and peer prescription drug use and approval of NMUPD were associated with misuse of prescription drugs within the interpersonal domain. At the school level, academic failure/low educational attainment was associated with high school student NMUPD. However, results for college students' academic failure and NMUPD were inconclusive. At the individual level, previous use of substances was found to be a signifi cant risk factor for NMUPD, as was adolescent aggressive/delinquent behavior and greater perceived risk or harm of use. Conclusions: NMUPD is a serious concern among adolescents and emerging adults. Several areas exist for prevention efforts within the context of the community, school, interpersonal, and individual domains. Thus, to curb NMUPD, multifaceted approaches are needed that target factors across multiple domains.

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