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ObjectiveMany smokers initiate smoking during adolescence. Making tobacco products less affordable is one of the best ways to control tobacco use. Studies on the effect of relative income price (RIP (ie, affordability)) of cigarettes on smoking initiation are scarce in low-income and middle-income countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa where data are limited. The goal of this study is to examine the effect of cigarette RIP on adolescent smoking initiation in Ghana.SettingThe study uses a pseudo-longitudinal data set constructed from the Global Youth Tobacco Surveys (GYTS (2000–2009 and 2017)) and RIP for the most sold cigarette brand in Ghana.ParticipantsThe GYTS is a national survey on adolescents.Primary and secondary outcomeEffect of RIP on adolescent smoking initiation in Ghana.ResultsUsing the GYTS 2000–2009 data, we find that the probability of smoking initiation falls significantly in response to a higher RIP, with an elasticity of −0.372 (95% CI −0.701 to −0.042) for the unmatched sample and −0.490 (95% CI −0.818 to −0.161) for the matched sample. The RIP elasticity for women ((−0.888) (95% CI −1.384 to −0.392) and (−0.928) (95% CI −1.434 to −0.422)) is statistically significant at 1% in both the unmatched and the matched samples, respectively, while the RIP elasticity for men is statistically insignificant in the 2000–2009 surveys. Analysis of the 2017 GYTS shows a similar outcome: a negative relationship between RIP and smoking initiation, and the results are statistically significant for both men and women, and for both matched and unmatched samples.ConclusionThe affordability (RIP) of cigarettes is negatively related to the probability of smoking initiation among adolescents in Ghana. Raising tobacco taxes in line with income growth would make cigarettes less affordable and dissuade adolescents from initiating smoking.

implemented around the world with the objective of increasing the cost of purchasing tobacco products and reducing tobacco consumption. Previous evidence has shown that increased cigarette prices are one of the most effective tobaccocontrol strategies in reducing tobacco consumption 2. On the other hand, relatively little attention has been given to the effect of non-pricing tobacco legislation. The literature on the elasticity of demand for cigarettes can be classified into two strands. The first strand, quite sizable, completely ignores the role of nonpricing policies when estimating the price elasticity of demand for cigarettes 2. The other strand accounts ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION The health consequences of smoking are serious and have been frequently detailed. A reduction in tobacco-related mortality hinges upon the ability to reduce tobacco usage. There is overwhelming evidence that higher cigarette prices reduce the demand for cigarettes, but little is known about the combined effect of price and non-price policies. This paper seeks to extend the analysis of price elasticities by estimating the combined effect of changes in price and non-price legislations in South Africa. METHODS Annual time-series data from 1961 to 2016 are used, with a policy index constructed to capture the instances of non-price tobacco legislation. We estimate the combined impact of changes in tobacco control policy on cigarette consumption using a vector error correction model (VECM) and a two-stage least squares (2SLS) model. RESULTS The estimated long-run own-price elasticities lie between-0.55 and-0.72, while the income elasticities lie between 0.39 and 0.49. The coefficients of the changing tobacco control policies and the changing market structure show that they contribute to a modest reduction in cigarette consumption. The short-run deviations from the steady state are presented using the error correction term (ECT). CONCLUSIONS Cigarette demand is responsive to cigarette prices and non-pricing policies but failure to control for non-pricing policies overstates the price effect. This suggests that both cigarette prices and non-pricing legislation are effective in reducing cigarette consumption.

The primary objective of this study is to analyze the determinants of efficiency in manufacturing firms in Cameroon. The study used a stochastic frontier model employing RPED data of 319 firms from different manufacturing industries. The data are micro-level which is the most adequate type of data used in the estimation of these models. The model used is that outlined by Battese and Coelli (1995) which determines the causes of inefficiency in the manufacturing sector in Cameroon. The estimates of the stochastic production frontier with inefficiency effects model indicates that firms in Cameroon exhibit various degrees of technical inefficiency for the sample of firms considered. The results show that firm size plays an important role in explaining technical efficiency in the sub-sector of food processing. However, large firms reduce technical inefficiency levels of firms in all the sub sectors. Another important variable which has an effect in determining technical efficiency level is the foreign ownership variable. It is significant in food processing, wood processing, textile and garments as well as in the overall sample. Hence, it increases technical efficiency in all the sub-sectors. Finally, since an increase in age of firms leads to a reduction in efficiency levels in manufacturing firms, policies should be adopted to replace the existing capital in the large firms.

This study compares the relative efficiency between tobacco and selected food crops (maize, groundnut and rice) among small scale farmers in Tanzania. A brief discussion on the contribution of tobacco to the Tanzanian economy, as well as the substantial health care costs emanating from tobacco related diseases, is highlighted. We hypothesize that the comparative efficiency of tobacco is not different when compared, even though preferential treatment is given to tobacco growers in the provision of inputs such as fertilizers better seed and the like. The method of analysis is the frontier production function. The study uses the data of householder farmers collected by the NBS in the 2007/08 agriculture census survey. The study is confined to the Tabora region of Tanzania—the major tobacco growing area of the country. It shows that a high preferential treatment is given to tobacco at the expense of maize and others crops. The frontier production results show that the efficiency indices for tobacco, maize, groundnut and rice as being 75.3%, 68.5%, 64.5% and 46.5% respectively. The 7.3% difference in efficiency between tobacco and maize is not substantial when modern inputs allotted to formers are taken into consideration. The most important explanatory variable that explains efficiency in tobacco is modern inputs. This is not so for other annual crops such as rice, groundnut and rice.