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Verbal labels are potent manipulators for olfactory perception, and verbal descriptors used in a cued olfactory identification test will influence the testing results. The main aim of the present study was to test whether the order of presentation of the odorants and the corresponding set of labels (verbal descriptors with or without pictures) would influence the results of a psychophysical odor identification test in 100 normosmic subjects (49 women and 51 men) and 100 patients with olfactory dysfunction (61 women and 39 men). Additionally, we investigated whether the scores would be different between subjects identifying odors from a list of verbal descriptors and subjects using both pictures and verbal descriptors. The subjects were examined with the extended, 32-item “Sniffin’ Sticks” identification test. We found that the scores of normosmic subjects were significantly higher when the subjects were presented with label options prior to smelling, whereas for patients the scores in the two conditions did not differ. Moreover, in both groups the scores were not significantly different when the subjects were presented either with verbal descriptors only or with verbal descriptors and pictures. Our findings seem to be of importance not only to research involving psychophysical olfactory identification tests or in a clinical context, but also to further experiments investigating human olfaction and cognition.

Personality ReorganizationTHE PREVIOUS chapter has pointed out the manifold developmental gains at the puberal stage. As one may expect, a major personality transformation also sets in when the individual enters the adolescent phases of growth and maturation. Stirred up and made possible through the stmctural maturation within the glandular and neuromuscular systems, the personality reorganization unfolds itself simultaneously in many of its dimensions and facets. CHANGING SELF-AWARENESSWhen an adult or older child puts on a new suit of clothes or merely a new hat, it tends to increase his self-observation, and his feelings of self-adequacy or inadequacy may become more noticeable at these times. Growth of any part or aspect of the organism is likely to promote heightened self-awareness and stir up attitudes related to one's self-evaluation. It is therefore easy to understand that puberal transformations within various bodily systems will affect the pattem of the total personaUty and the concept of self. Growing bodily structures and changes in proportions, all approaching the adult's physique, stimulate change of attitudes toward one's self and others. New vistas of experience and behavior appear. Feelings of self-might and self-worth may be magnified if growth is consistent with one's model, which is formulated in one's mind through observation of others in an advanced pattern of growth. Feelings of inadequacy and inferiority may emerge or be strengthened ii one notices morphological differences and interprets them as deviations or deficiencies from the standard. At this transi-^ tional age, one is very much, concemed about his appearance because he is now more self-conscious than before and capable of expanded^ self-evaluation. He comes to realize, for example, that his appearance 182

Middle ChildhoodTHE MIDDLE years of childhood encompass the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth years of the child's life. School readiness and the actual entering of school, extension of intellectual horizons, increase of moral and religious motivation, great interest in peers, expanding independence from parents, and improved self-identification are the mUestones in this phase of development.The phase commences with some somatic disequiUbrium due to the continual loss of the first set of teeth and emergence of the first permanent molars, as weU as susceptibility to colds and infectious childhood diseases. Passive withdrawal, dawdling and impulsiveness, increased excitability and inconsistency, oscillation and mental conflicts characterize the psychological tendencies at this age for at least some time.Beginning with the seventh year, a slower growth in height and weight enables the chUd to gain symmetry and balance in both physical performances and mental operations. Control over the large muscles approaches its completion, while control over the small muscles is moderately advanced. Since the child's energy amounts are great at this phase, he is constantly in motion, but he increases his caution. Active play, such as running or catching, playing baU or riding a bicycle, and juniping rope or dancing, may be practiced untU exhaustion unless adults direct such activities. The child is now interested in and delighted with his accomplishments. The desire for appreciation from others for his performances is great. A further endeavor is readily stimulated by adult interest in the child's activities.Water, sand, and dirt play may be engaged in for hours by both boys and girls. Boys are very interested in constructive play, where they can use simple mechanical devices, such as hammer, knife, scissors, scooter, 146

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