Taste receptors exist in several organs from tongue to colon and have diverse functions dependent on specific cell type. In enteroendocrine L-cells, stimulation of taste receptor signaling induces incretin hormones. Among incretin hormones, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) induces insulinotropic action by activating GLP-1 receptor of pancreatic β-cells. However, GLP-1 mimetic medicines have reported clinical side effects, such as autoimmune hepatitis, acute kidney injury, pancreatitis, and pancreatic cancer. Here, we hypothesized that if natural components in ethnomedicines can activate agonistic action of taste receptor; they may stimulate GLP-1 and therefore, could be developed as safe and applicable medicines to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with minimal side effects. Cucurbitacin B (CuB) is composed of triterpenoid structure and its structural character, that represents bitterness, can stimulate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. CuB ameliorated hyperglycemia by activating intestinal AMPK levels and by inducing plasma GLP-1 and insulin release in diabetic mice. This hypoglycemic action was decreased in dorsomorphin-injected mice and α-gustducin null mice. Moreover, systemic inhibition study in differentiated NCI-H716 cell line showed that CuB-mediated GLP-1 secretion was involved in activation of AMPK through α-gustducin and Gβγ-signaling of taste receptors. In summary, we conclude that, CuB represents novel hypoglycemic agents by activation of AMPK and stimulation of GLP-1 in differentiated enteroendocrine L-cells. These results suggest that taste receptor signaling-based therapeutic agents within tremendously diverse ethnomedicines, could be applied to developing therapeutics for T2DM patients.

Particulate matter 10 (PM10) with a diameter of less than 10 mm causes inflammation and allergic reactions in the airways and lungs, which adversely affects asthmatic patients. In this study, we examined the anti-inflammatory effects of Rosa laevigata (RL), which has been previously investigated medicinally in Korea and China for the discovery of plant-derived anti-inflammatory agents with low side effects, using a PM10-induced lung inflammatory disease model. Using MTT assay, we confirmed that in A549 cells pretreated with RL, cytotoxicity induced by PM10 (100 μg/mL) exposure was attenuated. In addition, western blotting revealed that RL suppressed the expression level of MAPK/NF-κB pathways and its downstream signal, COX-2 in PM10-induced A549 cells. Moreover, real-time PCR demonstrated that RL downregulated the mRNA expression level of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-13, and IL-17) in PM10-induced A549 cells. Based on the results of this study, RL has been shown to relieve inflammation in the lungs due to PM10 exposure. Therefore, RL may be developed as a natural remedy for respiratory diseases caused by PM10 exposure.

To evaluate whether Palmitoyl-pentapeptide (Pal-KTTKS), a lipidated subfragment of type 1 pro-collagen (residues 212-216), plays a role in fibroblast contractility, the effect of Pal-KTTKS on the expression of pro-fibrotic mediators in hypertropic scarring were investigated in relation with trans-differentiation of fibroblast to myofibroblast, an icon of scar formation. a-SMA was visualized by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy with a Cy-3-conjugated monoclonal antibody. The extent of a-SMA-positive fibroblasts was determined in collagen lattices and in cell culture study. Pal-KTTKS (0-0.5 lM) induced CTGF and a-SMA protein levels were determined by western blot analysis and fibroblast contractility was assessed in three-dimensional collagen lattice contraction assay. In confocal analysis, fibroblasts were observed as elongated and spindle shapes while myofibroblast observed as squamous, enlarged cells with pronounced stress fibers. Without Pal-KTTKS treatment, three quarters of the fibroblasts differentiates into the myofibroblast; a-SMApositive stress fibers per field decreased twofold with 0.1 lM Pal-KTTKS treatment (75 ± 7.1 vs 38.6 ± 16.1%, n = 3, p \ 0.05). The inhibitory effect was not significant in 0.5 lM Pal-KTTKS treatment. Stress fiber level and collagen contractility correlates with a-SMA expression level. In conclusion, Pal-KTTKS (0.1 lM) reduces a-SMA expression and trans-differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblast. The degree of reduction is dose-dependent. An abundance of myofibroblast and fibrotic scarring is correlated with excessive levels of a-SMA and collagen contractility. Delicate balance between the wound healing properties and pro-fibrotic abilities of pentapeptide KTTKS should be considered for selecting therapeutic dose for scar prevention.

Timosaponin A3 (TA3) was demonstrated as a potent anticancer chemical by several studies. Although the effects of inhibiting growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis in various cancer cells were demonstrated through multiple mechanisms, the pharmacological mechanism of TA3 shown in pancreatic cancer (PC) is insufficient compared to other cancers. In this study, we aimed to explore the key molecular mechanisms underlying the growth inhibitory effects of TA3 using PC cells and a xenograft model. First, from the microarray results, we found that TA3 regulated INSIG-1 and HMGCR in BxPC-3 cells. Furthermore, we showed that inhibition of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1) by TA3 reduced the fatty acid synthases FASN and ACC, thereby controlling the growth of BxPC-3 cells. We also tried to find mechanisms involved with SREBP-1, such as Akt, Gsk3β, mTOR, and AMPK, but these were not related to SREBP-1 inhibition by TA3. In the BxPC-3 xenograft model, the TA3 group had more reduced tumor formation and lower toxicity than the gemcitabine group. Interestingly, the level of the fatty acid metabolites palmitate and stearate were significantly reduced in the tumor tissue in the TA3 group. Overall, our study demonstrated that SREBP-1 was a key transcription factor involved in pancreatic cancer growth and it remained a precursor form due to TA3, reducing the adipogenesis and growth in BxPC-3 cells. Our results improve our understanding of novel mechanisms of TA3 for the regulation of lipogenesis and provide a new approach to the prevention and treatment of PC.

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