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Transnational marriages of migrants in Western Europe tend to be seen as hampering integration. In response, policies have been tightened, despite little knowledge on transnational marriages and the effects of such measures. This paper investigates the role of individual preferences and contextual factors such as family reunification policies, group size and development levels of the regions of origin in partner choice of the children of Turkish and Moroccan immigrants. We draw on a novel dataset collected in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Our findings suggest that transnational marriages are partly associated with contextual factors such as a rural origin and family reunification policies. The analysis indicates higher rates of transnational marriages under open family reunification policies, providing tentative evidence of policy effects. On the individual level, the choice of a partner from the parents' origin country is associated with religiosity.

We would like to thank all the research participants who have contributed to our work by sharing their stories, opinions and insights. In particular we would like to thank the organizations that have facilitated our work: in Bristol, Khaas, Dhek Bhal, Awaz Utaoh; in Bradford, QED and Roshni Ghar. We thank Nina Kaur and Davinder Singh for their generosity with their time, hospitality and assistance. Harpreet Kaur and Melanie Griffiths have carried out crucial work at crucial times for the project. Zahra Sabri helped us with the Urdu translation of fieldwork material. Kaveri Qureshi at the University of Oxford and Therese O'Toole at the University or Bristol provided expert advice in the final stages of this report. We have benefitted enormously from the insights of the participants of the Local and National Stakeholder Workshops in Bristol, Bradford and London, and the participants at the project's academic workshop in Oxford.

This study examines a factor that has thus far received little attention in research on attitudes toward violent in-group defense, namely, the role of perceived parental ethnic socialization. We hypothesized that perceived parental ethnic socialization (i.e., cultural socialization, egalitarianism, bias/mistrust) affects attitudes toward violence in defense of the in-group by others as well as willingness to use such violence oneself via its influence on collective identity factors (in-group connectedness, collective deprivation, religious superiority, connectedness with mainstream society). We analyzed a sample of children of Turkish Muslim migrants in the Netherlands. The data came from a survey conducted among pupils at seven secondary schools (age 14-18, N = 133). Results show that perceived parental ethnic socialization has an indirect effect on attitudes toward and willingness to use a violent in-group defense that runs via the collective identity factors. Perceived parental socialization that emphasizes equality is related to less willingness to use violent in-group defense. Perceived parental messages of mistrust of the other and preparation for bias were associated with a more positive attitude toward violent ingroup defense by others and toward willingness to use such violence. Perceived cultural socialization correlates positively with attitude toward violent in-group defense by others and willingness to use violent in-group defense. The total size of the indirect effects of perceived parental ethnic socialization was modest. We did not find a direct effect of perceived parental socialization.