Pododermatitis is frequent in captive flamingos worldwide, but little is known about the associated histopathologic lesions. Involvement of a papillomavirus or herpesvirus has been suspected. Histopathologic evaluation and viral assessment of biopsies from 19 live and 10 dead captive greater flamingos were performed. Selected samples were further examined by transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Feet from 10 dead free-ranging greater flamingos were also evaluated. The histologic appearance of lesions of flamingos of increasing age was interpreted as the progression of pododermatitis. Mild histologic lesions were seen in a 3-week-old flamingo chick with no macroscopic lesions, and these were characterized by Micrococcus-like bacteria in the stratum corneum associated with exocytosis of heterophils. The inflammation associated with these bacteria may lead to further histologic changes: irregular columnar proliferations, papillary squirting, and dyskeratosis. In more chronic lesions, hydropic degeneration of keratinocytes, epidermal hyperplasia, and dyskeratosis were seen at the epidermis, as well as proliferation of new blood vessels and increased intercellular matrix in the dermis. Papillomavirus DNA was not identified in any of the samples, while herpesvirus DNA was seen only in a few cases; therefore, these viruses were not thought to be the cause of the lesions. Poor skin health through suboptimal husbandry may weaken the epidermal barrier and predispose the skin to invasion of Micrococcus-like bacteria. Histologic lesions were identified in very young flamingos with no macroscopic lesions; this is likely to be an early stage lesion that may progress to macroscopic lesions. Keywords bacteria, bumblefoot, electron microscopy, greater flamingo, histology, Phoenicopterus roseus, pododermatitis, virology Greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) are kept in captivity worldwide, but especially in Europe (65% of 139 International Species Inventory System [ISIS] member institutions), with a total of approximately 5500 birds. 18 Pododermatitis was the reason for euthanasia or a secondary finding in 95% of the flamingos (18/19) necropsied between 2000 and 2011 at the Institute of Animal Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland (F. Wyss, unpublished survey, 2011). Corroborating these findings, a survey of the European and North American flamingo population showed varying degrees of gross plantar foot lesions in up to 100% of captive flamingos examined. 28 Many types of birds, including raptors, penguins, water fowl, and cockatiels, develop pododermatitis. 12,14 Wild birds are rarely affected. 9,16,20 This was supported by the evaluation of free-ranging greater flamingos in the Camargue, France, which did not show any foot lesions. 41 Factors influencing the level of pododermatitis have been evaluated mainly from poultry farm data, where nutrition 6,26 and substrate 2,24,25,27 were identified as contributing factors. The types of flooring in water ponds and dietary zinc availability h...

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Pododermatitis is a worldwide problem in captive flaamingos. We performed an evaluation of different influence factors (age, sex, weight, origin, breeding status) and a comparison of foot lesions between several zoological institutions and the feet of free-ranging Greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus). A scoring system was used to determine the prevalence and types of lesions and severity. Cracks and nodules developed as early as 3 months of age and papillomatous growths as early as 6 to 7 months of age in captivity. Nodules with ulceration occurred significantly more often in birds older than 31 years and heavier than 4 kg. The comparison of different institutions revealed that birds kept in enclosures with natural-floored water ponds had significantly less severe lesions than birds kept in concrete water ponds. None of the freeranging flamingos, which live on a muddy underground, showed any lesion. This study demonstrates that flooring, weight and age are important in the onset and progression of pododermatitis in flamingos. Centre de recherche pour la conservation des zones humides méditerranéennes, le Sambuc, France SummaryPododermatitis is a worldwide problem in captive flamingos. We performed an evaluation of

Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and rodents possess continuously growing teeth, and dental problems are a major health issue in these species. Knowledge of tooth growth characteristics is required to adequately treat dental problems and advise owners concerning diets. Most research was performed using bur marks and measuring eruption and wear manually. However, this method cannot be applied to teeth less rostral than the first premolar; therefore, for evaluation of molars, other methods are needed. We evaluated the use of fluorochromes xylenol orange and calcein green to measure growth rates of rabbit teeth and compared this method to results obtained by manually measuring the distance between a bur mark and the gingival margin of the same tooth (eruption) and by measuring the distance between the bur mark and the apex of the same tooth on computed tomography scans (growth). Apical fluorochrome measurements correlated well with eruption and growth rates obtained with bur marks, whereas measurements coronal to the pulp cavity did not. Growth rates were approximately 1.9 mm/wk for maxillary and 2.2 mm/wk for mandibular incisors. Growth rates of premolars were 2.14+0.28 mm/wk in rabbits on a grass/rice hulls/sand pelleted diet and 0.93+0.18 mm/wk in rabbits on a hay diet. Growth of molars could only be assessed using the measurement in dentin on the wall of the pulp cavity, which does not account for the real growth. However, being similar to this measurement in premolars, one could hypothesize similar growth in molars as in premolars. We conclude that the application of fluorochrome staining can be used to measure tooth growth in teeth that are not accessible for bur marks or in animals that are too small to assess tooth eruption or growth by bur marks.