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The family Picornaviridae consists of a large group of plus-strand RNA viruses that share a similar genome organization. The nomenclature of the picornavirus proteins is based on their position in the viral RNA genome but does not necessarily imply a conserved function of proteins of different genera. The enterovirus 2B protein is a small hydrophobic protein that, upon individual expression, is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi complex, reduces ER and Golgi complex Ca 2؉ levels, most likely by forming transmembrane pores, and inhibits protein trafficking through the Golgi complex. At present, little is known about the function of the other picornavirus 2B proteins. Here we show that rhinovirus 2B, which is phylogenetically closely related to enterovirus 2B, shows a similar subcellular localization and function to those of enterovirus 2B. In contrast, 2B proteins of hepatitis A virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and encephalomyocarditis virus, all of which are more distantly related to enteroviruses, show a different localization and have little, if any, effects on Ca 2؉ homeostasis and intracellular protein trafficking. Our data suggest that the 2B proteins of enterovirus and rhinovirus share the same function in virus replication, while the other picornavirus 2B proteins support the viral life cycle in a different manner. Moreover, we show that an enterovirus 2B protein that is retained in the ER is unable to modify Ca 2؉ homeostasis and inhibit protein trafficking, demonstrating the importance of Golgi complex localization for its functioning.The family Picornaviridae is a group of small, nonenveloped cytolytic viruses that include a number of important human and animal pathogens. The picornavirus family consists of nine genera, including enterovirus (e.g., coxsackievirus [CBV] and poliovirus [PV]), rhinovirus (e.g., human rhinovirus [HRV]), cardiovirus (e.g., encephalomyocarditis virus [EMCV]), aphthovirus (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease virus [FMDV]), hepatovirus (hepatitis A virus [HAV]), teschovirus (e.g., porcine teschovirus), erbovirus (e.g., equine rhinitis B virus), parechovirus (e.g., parechovirus 2), and kobuvirus (e.g., aichivirus). In addition, the picornavirus family contains a number of unassigned viruses. All picornaviruses have a similar genome organization. The viral genome typically consists of a positivestranded RNA molecule of approximately 7,500 to 8,000 nucleotides that contains one single large open reading frame preceded by a long 5Ј-untranslated region and followed by a much smaller 3Ј-untranslated region and a genetically encoded poly(A) tail. A small viral protein, VPg, is covalently linked to the 5Ј end of the viral genome. Translation of the RNA genome yields a polyprotein of approximately 2,200 amino acids (aa) that is divided into the P1, P2, and P3 regions. The polyprotein is processed by virus-encoded proteases to generate the individual structural and nonstructural proteins. Processing of the P1 region yields the structural capsid proteins 1A (VP4), 1B...

In the present study, we investigated DNA barcoding effectiveness to characterize honeybee pollen pellets, a food supplement largely used for human nutrition due to its therapeutic properties. We collected pollen pellets using modified beehives placed in three zones within an alpine protected area (Grigna Settentrionale Regional Park, Italy). A DNA barcoding reference database, including rbcL and trnH-psbA sequences from 693 plant species (104 sequenced in this study) was assembled. The database was used to identify pollen collected from the hives. Fifty-two plant species were identified at the molecular level. Results suggested rbcL alone could not distinguish among congeneric plants; however, psbA-trnH identified most of the pollen samples at the species level. Substantial variability in pollen composition was observed between the highest elevation locality (Alpe Moconodeno), characterized by arid grasslands and a rocky substrate, and the other two sites (Cornisella and Ortanella) at lower altitudes. Pollen from Ortanella and Cornisella showed the presence of typical deciduous forest species; however in samples collected at Ortanella, pollen of the invasive Lonicera japonica, and the ornamental Pelargonium x hortorum were observed. Our results indicated pollen composition was largely influenced by floristic local biodiversity, plant phenology, and the presence of alien flowering species. Therefore, pollen molecular characterization based on DNA barcoding might serve useful to beekeepers in obtaining honeybee products with specific nutritional or therapeutic characteristics desired by food market demands.

We investigated the effects of 1 and 10 mg L(-1) AgNPs on germinating Triticum aestivum L. seedlings. The exposure to 10 mg L(-1) AgNPs adversely affected the seedling growth and induced morphological modifications in root tip cells. TEM analysis suggests that the observed effects were due primarily to the release of Ag ions from AgNPs. To gain an increased understanding of the molecular response to AgNP exposure, we analyzed the genomic and proteomic changes induced by AgNPs in wheat seedlings. At the DNA level, we applied the AFLP technique and we found that both treatments did not induce any significant DNA polymorphisms. 2DE profiling of roots and shoots treated with 10 mg L(-1) of AgNPs revealed an altered expression of several proteins mainly involved in primary metabolism and cell defense.

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