Leaders figure significantly in radicalization processes that can ultimately lead to terrorism. This article attempts to explain radicalization as a process of interaction between leaders and their followers. We argue that the process of radicalization includes five stages: pre-radicalization, self-identification, indoctrination, commitment, and jihad ideologization. In the case of the Bali bombers, the process was strengthened by external environmental conditions that enabled leaders to gain broad support from the community. In our analysis we rely on a combination of interviews with convicted terrorists and previously unexamined documentary evidence.

This paper reports the development and validation of a new questionnaire to assess students' perceptions of the online learning environment in Indonesia during the COVID-19 pandemic. In total, 669 participants (454 women, 215 men) from various universities were recruited online to complete a 25-item questionnaire. Item factor analysis verified a five-factor model, while multidimensional Rasch analysis showed that all items fit this model and have good reliability. The factors of Access, Interaction, Lecturer Support, Equity, and Investigation formed the valid and reliable Online Classroom Learning Environment Inventory (OCLEI). All aspects of online learning readiness were related to the five factors of the OCLEI, therefore supporting convergent validity. With these results, we concluded that the OCLEI is a novel measure that can be used in future educational research in Indonesia. Limitations and implications are noted.