The impact of leader–follower interactions on the radicalization of terrorists: A case study of the Bali bombers

Abstract

Leaders figure significantly in radicalization processes that can ultimately lead to terrorism. This article attempts to explain radicalization as a process of interaction between leaders and their followers. We argue that the process of radicalization includes five stages: pre-radicalization, self-identification, indoctrination, commitment, and jihad ideologization. In the case of the Bali bombers, the process was strengthened by external environmental conditions that enabled leaders to gain broad support from the community. In our analysis we rely on a combination of interviews with convicted terrorists and previously unexamined documentary evidence.

Towards an indigenous psychology of religious terrorism with global implications: Introduction to AJSP's Special Issue on Islamist terrorism in Indonesia

“…Here, we see an indigenous psychology with international implications at work, in that jihadi ideology is specific to Islam, but Islam is one of the world's great religions. Again it is the interpretation of scripture offered by trusted leaders (Milla et al, 2013), and often reinforced by oaths of obedience rather than scripture itself, that fuels the indigenous psychology of violent jihad presented here. Jihad is perceived as a duty and its fulfillment bliss according to the Bali bombers and the JI and KOMPAK (Milla et al, Putra, 2013), and it is the proximal mediator of sacred violence according to Muluk and Ruth (2013).…”

“…We suspect that this type of defensive orientation and justification is a product of the historical moment (Liu & Hilton, 2005), in which Islamic civilization is on the back foot, and Western civilization has been in the ascendency for the past two centuries. The Bali bombers, in the article by Milla et al (2013), emphasized the duty of obedience to radical religious authorities who rely on a narrow range of scriptural sources: 'in the Koran letter An Nisa verse 75 Allah has explained, "and why do you not fight in the way of Allah, whereas the weak, women and children pray for the defense", then the law of this is sin.' This suggests that there are more powerful and broadly appealing indigenous psychologies that require further investigation.…”

“…Those who favoured and ultimately carried out the attacks did so primarily in deference to the views of their leaders and teachers (Milla et al, 2013) who were not directly involved in the attacks. Even within JI circles it is controversial and was hotly debated prior to the Bali bombings.…”

Terrorism and jihad in Indonesia: Questions and possible ways forward

“…A closer reading of the extracts suggests profiles of individuals with certain personality traits (conservative and dominance-oriented) with strong moral and ideological convictions that are channelled towards political change (establishing Islamic governance, sharia law instead of secular law). Milla et al (2013) focus on the radicalization of five individuals charged with the planning and execution of the Bali bombing. .…”

“…Future research could more clearly examine whether standard psychological models of political orientation, threat, and collective action have applicability in this specific context or whether such theories need to be modified to fit the local cultural, social, and religious context. Milla et al (2013) focus on the radicalization of five individuals charged with the planning and execution of the Bali bombing. Excerpts from interviews, letters, and notes are used to study the radicalization process of these individuals.…”